Road

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Historical road construction

A Greek street from the 3rd to 4th century BC in Velia, Italy. The Porta Rosa was the main street of Elea. It is paved with limestone blocks, with a gutter for the drainage of rain water.

Main article: History of road transport safety reflectors

That the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, arguing that animals do not follow constant paths. Others believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of this type of road origination, where man and animal both selected the same natural line. By about 10,000 BC, rough pathways were used by human travelers. oil absorbents

Stone paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC anti gravity shoes

Corduroy roads (log roads) are found dating to 4,000 BC in Glastonbury, England

The timber trackway; Sweet Track causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating (Dendrochronology) enabled very precise dating. It has been claimed to be the oldest road in the world.

Brick paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC

In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the famous Royal Road which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road remained in use after Roman times.

A paved Roman road in Pompeii, Italy.

In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than transport by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank.

From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. At its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads.

In the 700s AD, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated roads were those of the Baghdad, Iraq, which were paved with tar in the 8th century. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.

In the 1600s road construction and maintenance in Britain was traditionally done on a local parish basis. This resulted in a poor and variable state of roads. To remedy this, the first of the "Turnpike Trusts" was established around 1706, to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 Trusts in Britain and some 36,800 km of engineered roads. The Rebecca Riots in Carmarthenshire and Rhayader from 1839 to 1844 contributed to a Royal Commission leading to the demise of the system in 1844.

Road transport economics

Main article: Transport economics

A road in Mumbai, India. Most of the roads across the world are built and maintained by the public sector

The Transfgran in Romania, first built as a military road.

Transport economics is a branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advanced ticket purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip (the final good from the point-of-view of the consumer) may require bundling the services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.

Although transport systems follow the same supply and demand theory as other industries, the complications of network effects and choices between non-similar goods (e.g. car and bus travel) make estimating the demand for transportation facilities difficult. The development of models to estimate the likely choices between the non-similar goods involved in transport decisions "discrete choice" models led to the development of the important branch of econometrics, and a Nobel Prize for Daniel McFadden.

In transport, demand can be measured in numbers of journeys made or in total distance traveled across all journeys (e.g. passenger-kilometres for public transport or vehicle-kilometres of travel (VKT) for private transport). Supply is considered to be a measure of capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured using the generalised cost of travel, which includes both money and time expenditure. The effect of increases in supply (capacity) are of particular interest in transport economics (see induced demand), as the potential environmental consequences are significant.

Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors). Roads (except those on private property that are not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel), though some public roads, especially freeways are funded by tolls.

Environmental aspects

Air pollution along Pasadena Highway in Los Angeles, United States

Promenade in Florence, Italy

Air pollution

Motor vehicles operating on roads contribute emissions, particularly for congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Of particular concern are particulate emissions from diesel engines. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road. Road dust kicked up by vehicles may trigger allergic reactions. Sand applied to icy roads can be ground up by traffic into fine particulates and contribute to air pollution.

Water pollution

Urban runoff from roads and other impervious surfaces is a major source of water pollution. Rainwater and snowmelt running off of roads tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants. Road runoff is a major source of nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are created as combustion byproducts of gasoline and other fossil fuels.

De-icing chemicals and sand can run off into roadsides, contaminate groundwater and pollute surface waters. Road salts (primarily chlorides of sodium, calcium or magnesium) can be toxic to sensitive plants and animals. Sand can alter stream bed environments, causing stress for the plants and animals that live there.

Noise pollution

Motor vehicle traffic on roads generate noise pollution especially at higher operating speeds, near intersections and on uphill sections. Therefore, considerable noise health effects are expected from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. Noise mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by acoustical engineering considerations first arose about 1973.[citation needed]

Driving on the right or the left

A sign on Australia's Great Ocean Road reminding foreign motorists to keep left.

Main article: Driving on the left or right

Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country. In countries where traffic flows on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise/anti-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic flows on the left, the reverse is true.

About 34% of the world by population drive on the left, and 66% keep right. By roadway distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right, even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.

Construction

A road being torn up.

Surveyor at work with a leveling instrument.

Asphalt layer and roller

Sub-base layer composed of cement-based material being applied during construction of the M8 motorway in Ireland.

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel. (pg15) and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.

After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The Radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. (page34) Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks (page59)

Roadways are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge. (page38 to 40)

A Borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons. (page 53 to 56 )

Road construction on Marquette Avenue in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States

Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas. (page 66 to 67 )

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to 90% relative compaction. Generally blasting of rock is discouraged in the road bed. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached. (page 68 to 69 ).

Typical pavement strata for a heavily traveled road

General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index. The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel, which acts as an inhibitor to the growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified Particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The road bed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply. (page 70 to 72 )

The completed road way is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and other forms of Road surface marking are installed.

According to a May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP national transportation research organizationriving on rough roads costs the average American motorist approximately $400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption, and tire wear caused by poor road conditions.

Construction Costs

According to www.nysthruway.gov, some typical costs to construct roads in several USA states include: CONSTRUCTION COST Expressway Section Per-Mile Cost Connecticut Turnpike $3,449,000 New Jersey Turnpike $2,200,000 Pennsylvania Turnpike (Delaware Extension) $1,970,000 Northern Indiana Toll Road $1,790,000 Garden State Parkway $1,720,000 Massachusetts Turnpike $1,600,000 Thruway, New York to Pennsylvania Line $1,547,000 Ohio Turnpike $1,352,000 Pennsylvania Turnpike (early construction) $736,000

Duplication

When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication, twinning or doubling. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.

Maintenance

Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of axle weight. A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds (3.6287 t) on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and vehicle braking or related construction works.

Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some UK countries the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer then its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives. Some roads like Chicago, Illinois's "Wacker Drive", a major two-level viaduct in downtown area are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years.

Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies continually monitor road conditions and apply preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong the lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitior the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial Profilometers. These measurements include road curvature, cross slope, unevenness, roughness, rutting and texture (roads). This data is fed into a pavement management system, which recommends the best maintenance or construction treatment to correct the damage that has occurred.

Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro-milling and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.

Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society, in a 2009 report released by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (USA) about 50% of the roads in the USA are in bad condition with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an average of $746/year on vehicle repairs while the average US motorist pays about $335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $0.285/gallon tax).

Repair Techniques

There are many repair techniques for roads. Slab Stabilization and Joint Sealing, both Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) techniques, are often used in conjunction with other techniques.

Slab Stabilization

Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration. The most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure. Slab stabilization is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually employed with other Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) methods including patching and diamond grinding. The technique restores support to concrete slabs by filing small voids that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or the pavement edge. The process consists of pumping a cementitous grout or polyurethane mixture through holes drilled through the slab. The grout can fill small voids beneath the slab and/or sub-base. The grout also displaces free water and helps keep water from saturating and weakening support under the joints and slab edge after stabilization is complete. The three steps for this method after finding the voids are locating and drilling holes, grout injection and post-testing the stabilized slabs.

Slab stabilization does not correct depressions, increase the design structural capacity, stop erosion or eliminate faulting. It does, however, restore the slab support, therefore, decreasing deflections under the load. Stabilization should only be performed at joints and cracks where loss of support exists. Visual inspection is the simplest manner to find voids. Signs that repair is needed are transverse joint faulting, corner breaks and shoulder drop off and lines at or near joints and cracks. Deflection testing is another common procedure utilized to locate voids. It is recommended to do this testing at night as during cooler temperatures, joints open, aggregate interlock diminishes and load deflections are at their highest.

Another testing method is ground penetrating radar. It pulses electromagnetic wave technology into the pavement and then ceases the transmission during which the transmitter-receiver detects signals that are deflected from the pavement. Yet another method is the epoxy/core test, which confirms void presence by visual and mechanical methods. It consists of drilling a 25 to 50 millimeter hole through the pavement and into the sub-base with a dry-bit roto-hammer. Next, a two-part epoxy is poured into the hole that is dyed for visual clarity. Once the epoxy is hardened, the technicians drill through the hole. If a void is present, the epoxy will stick to the core and provide physical evidence.

Common stabilization materials are pozzolan-cement grout and polyurethane. The requirements for slab stabilization are strength and the ability to flow into or expand to fill small voids. Colloidal mixing equipment is necessary to use the pozzolan-cement grouts. The contractor should place the grout using a positive-displacement injection pump or a non-pulsing progressive cavity pump. A drill is also necessary but it must produce a clean hole with no surface spalling or breakouts. The injection devices must include a grout packer that is capable of sealing a hole. The injection device must also have a return hose or a fast-control reverse switch in case workers detect slab movement on the uplift gauge. The uplift beam helps to monitor the slab deflection and has to have sensitive dial gauges.

Joint Sealing

Also called joint and crack repair, this method purpose is to minimize infiltration of surface water and incompressible material into the joint system. Joint sealants are also used to reduce dowel bar corrosion in Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) techniques. Successful resealing consists of old sealant removal, shaping and cleaning the reservoir, installing the backer rod and installing the sealant. Sawing, manual removal, plowing and cutting are methods used to remove the old sealant. Saws are used to shape the reservoir. When cleaning the reservoir, no dust, dirt or traces of old sealant should remain. Thus, it is recommended to water wash, sand-blast and then air blow to remove any sand, dirt or dust. The backer rod installation requires a double-wheeled, steel roller to insert the rod to the desired depth. After inserting the backer rod, the sealant is placed into the joint. There are various materials to choose for this method including hot pour bituminous liquid, silicone and preformed compression seals.



Terminology

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The A22(T) near Summer Hill, East Sussex, England, United Kingdom

Road in Kaluga Oblast, Russia

Alignment (road) - Cross slope/Banking/Superelevation, horizontal and vertical curvature of a road.

All-weather road - Unpaved road that is constructed of a material that does not create mud during rainfall.

Adverse camber - the situation where the road slopes towards the outside of a bend, increasing the chance of vehicles travelling at speed toppling or skidding. Usually only a found as a temporary situation during road maintenance.

Belisha Beacon - an orange globe, lit at night, used to highlight a pedestrian crossing.

Bollard - Rigid posts that can be arranged in a line to close a road or path to vehicles above a certain width

Byway - Highway over which the public have a right to travel for vehicular and other kinds of traffic, but which is used mainly as footpaths and bridleways

Bypass Road that avoids or "bypasses" a built-up area, town, or village

Bottleneck - Section of a road with a carrying capacity substantially below that of other sections of the same road

Botts' dots - Non-reflective raised pavement marker used on roads

Cat's eye - reflective raised pavement marker used on roads

Camber - the curvature of the road surface that encourages surface water to flow freely from the carriageway, or on bends angling of the surface to lean traffic 'into the bend' reducing the chance of a skid.

Chicane - Sequence of tight serpentine curves (usually an S-shape curve or a bus stop) in a roadway

Chipseal - Road surface composed of a thin layer of crushed stone 'chips' and asphalt emulsion. It seals the surface and protects it from weather, but provides no structural strength. It is cheaper than asphalt concrete or a concrete, in the U.S. it is usually only used on low volume rural roads

Corniche - Road on the side of a cliff or mountain, with the ground rising on one side and falling away on the other

Curb - Edge where a raised pavement/sidewalk/footpath, road median, or road shoulder meets an unraised street or other roadway.

Curb extension - (or also kerb extension, bulb-out, nib, elephant ear, curb bulge and blister) Traffic calming measure, intended to slow the speed of traffic and increase driver awareness, particularly in built-up and residential neighborhoods.

Fork - (literally "fork in the road") Type of intersection where a road splits

Guard rail - Prevents vehicles from veering off the road into oncoming traffic, crashing against solid objects or falling from a road

Green lane - (UK) Unsurfaced road, may be so infrequently used that vegetation colonises freely, hence 'green'. Many green lanes are ancient routes that have existed for millennia, similar to a Byway

Gutter - UK a drainage channel between the main carriageway and the edge of the road.

Interstate Highway System - United States System of Interstate and Defense Highways

Layby (Pullout, pull-off) - A paved area beside a main road where cars can stop temporarily to let another car pass.

Loose chippings - the hazard of stone chippings which have come loose.

Median - On divided roads, including expressways, motorways, or autobahns, the central reservation (British English), median (North American English), median strip (North American English and Australian English), neutral ground [Louisiana English] or central nature strip (Australian English) is the area which separates opposing lanes of traffic

Mountain pass - Lower point that allows easier access through a range of mountains

Milestone - One of a series of numbered markers placed along a road at regular intervals, showing the distance to destinations.

National Highway - Road built and maintained by a national authority.

Pavement - The road regarded as a geoconstruction. In the UK the term is road surface and the pavement is a pedestrian walkway alongside the road.

Pedestrian crossing - Designated point on a road at which some means are employed to assist pedestrians wishing to cross safely

Pelican crossing - (officially Pelicon crossing) UK a PEdestrian LIght CONtrolled crossing.

Private highway - Highway owned and operated for profit by private industry

Private road - Road owned and maintained by a private individual, organization, or company rather than by a government

Public space - Place where anyone has a right to come without being excluded because of economic or social conditions

Ranch road - U.S. road which serves to connect rural and agricultural areas to market towns

Road number - Often assigned to a stretch of public roadway. The number chosen is often dependent on the type of road, with numbers differentiating between interstates, motorways, arterial thoroughfares, and so forth

Road-traffic safety - Process to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) resulting from crashes of road vehicles traveling on public roads

Roadworks - Part or all of the road has to be occupied for work or maintenance relating to the road

Roughness - Deviations from a true planar pavement surface, which affects vehicle suspension deflection, dynamic loading, ride quality, surface drainage and winter operations. Roughness have wavelengths ranging from 500 mm up to some 40 m. The upper limit may be as high as 350 m when considering motion sickness aspects; motion sickness is generated by motion with down to 0.1 Hz frequency; in an ambulance car driving 35 m/s (126 km/h), waves with up to 350 m will excite motion sickness.

Roundabout UK a road junction where typically three or more roads are joined by a circular section of road. Traffic 'on the roundabout' has priority over traffic on approach roads, unless indicated otherwise. In countrys where traffic drives on the left the roundabout is travelled in a clockwise direction. Also known as an roundabout in parts of the UK.

Shoulder - A clear, level area beside the driving lane(s). It helps support the roadway, helps drain the pavement, provides room for bicyclists and, in areas without sidewalks, pedestrians, allows disabled to get out of the road; a hard shoulder is paved, a soft shoulder is unpaved.

State highway - Road numbered by the state, falling below numbered national highways (like U.S. Routes) in the hierarchy or a road maintained by the state, including nationally-numbered highways

Texture (roads) - Deviations from a true planar pavement surface, which affects the interaction between road and tire. Microtexture have wavelengths below 0.5 mm, Macrotexture below 50 mm and Megatexture below 500 mm.

Traffic calming - Set of strategies used by urban planners and traffic engineers which aim to slow down or reduce traffic, thereby improving safety for pedestrians and bicyclists as well as improving the environment for residents

Traffic island - UK a small raised area used to help define the traffic flow, and which may also act as a refuge for pedestrians crossing the carriageway or a location for signs, barriers or lights. A synonym for roundabout in some parts of the UK.

Traffic light - also known as a traffic signal, stop light, stop-and-go lights, robot or semaphore, is a signaling device positioned at a road intersection, pedestrian crossing, or other location in order to assign right of way to different approaches to an intersection

Zebra Crossing - UK a pedestrian crossing marked by black and white stripes on the carriageway.

See also

Roads portal

AASHO Road Test

Banked turn

Corpse roads

Cross slope

Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

Drainage gradient

Equestrian use of roadways

Friction

Habitat fragmentation

International_Grooving_&_Grinding_Association

Inca road system

Line source

List of roads and highways

List of OECD countries by road network size

Infrastructure

Pavement management system

Ride quality

Road movie

Road runner

Road slipperiness

Road test

Roadway air dispersion model

Roadway noise

Street

Strip road

Texture (roads)

Towing

Trade route

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^ "Road Dust - Something To Sneeze About." Science Daily, 1999-11-30.

^ United States. National Research Council. Washington, DC. "Urban Stormwater Management in the United States." October 15, 2008. pp. 5, 110.

^ G. Allen Burton, Jr., Robert Pitt (2001). Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers. New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers. ISBN 0-87371-924-7. http://unix.eng.ua.edu/~rpitt/Publications/BooksandReports/Stormwater%20Effects%20Handbook%20by%20%20Burton%20and%20Pitt%20book/MainEDFS_Book.html.  Chapter 2.

^ Charles Seawell and Newland Agbenowosi (1998)."Effects of Road Deicing Salts on Groundwater Systems." Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Department of Civil Engineering.

^ University of Minnesota (2009). "U of M research finds most road salt is making it into the state's lakes and rivers." 2009-02-10.

^ "Why In Britain Do We Drive On The Left?". 2Pass.co.uk. 1996-2007. http://www.2pass.co.uk/goodluck.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-24. 

^ Kincaid, Peter (1986). The Rule of the Road: An International Guide to History and Practice. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-25249-1. http://www.amazon.com/Rule-Road-International-History-Practice/dp/0313252491. 

^ Lucas, Brian (2005). "Which side of the road do they drive on?". http://www.brianlucas.ca/roadside/. Retrieved 2006-08-03. 

^ "Why do some countries drive on the right and others on the left?". http://users.pandora.be/worldstandards/driving%20on%20the%20left.htm. 

^ "Kitsap County Road Standards 2006" (Doc). Kitsap County, Washington. 2006. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=4&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitsapgov.com%2FPW%2Fpdf%2FRevised%2520Road%2520Standards.doc&ei=CR4oRqeuCIuYgQOonvGyDQ&usg=AFrqEzc34dXvKRHE9kUtBqd8RfqzfNI2rA&sig2=nrd9wbiu_sCE4shhBWX6jw. Retrieved 2007-04-20. 

^ "Washington State County Road Standards". Chapter 35.78 RCW requires cities and counties to adopt uniform definitions and design standards for municipal streets and roads. Municipal Research & Services Center of Washington. 2005. http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/Transpo/stand/CoRdStand.aspx. Retrieved 2007-04-20. 

^ a b c d e f g h Shire of Wyndham East Kimberly (October 2006). "Guidelines for rural road design and construction technical specifications" (PDF). Western Australia (The Last Frontier). http://www.thelastfrontier.com.au/Publications/06K027005-061019-Rural%20Road%20Technical%20Specification%20complete%20(3).pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-24. 

^ "Road Building Equipment". Constructing roads into forestry work areas. Caterpillar. 2007. http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=62323&x=7. Retrieved 2007-04-20. 

^ "Volvo Construction Equipment (Europe)". Building the cities, towns, streets, highways and bridges in your neighborhood and in communities around the globe. Volvo. 2007. http://www.volvo.com/constructionequipment/europe/en-gb/work+solutions/government/introduction.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-20. 

^ Glossary: Princes Highway, Traralgon Bypass - Planning Assessment Report at The State of Victoria

^ "ISAP 9th Conference Titles & Abstracts (#09044)". Effects of Frost Heave on the Longitudinal Profile of Asphalt Pavements in Cold Regions. International Society for Asphalt Pavements. August 2002. http://www.asphalt.org/Pubs/9th_conf_abst.html. Retrieved 2007-05-13. 

^ The Motorway Achievement: Frontiers of Knowledge and Practice. Thomas Telford. 2002. pp. 252. ISBN 0727731971. http://books.google.com/books?id=7Yqxyefv-VAC&pg=PA252&ots=Yvl1puH55J&dq=4th+power+of+axle+weight&sig=qNz9nc_S0HgJDblEONAZXcS605g. 

^ O'Flaherty, Coleman A. (2002). Highways: The Location, Design, Construction & Maintenance of Road Pavements. Elsevier. pp. 252. ISBN 0750650907. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ren4sWQ3jKkC&pg=PA252&ots=9b8s3lyHfg&dq=Pavements+are+designed+for+an+expected+service+life&sig=Wl0QDnn4_4vaXb-TQI8TiBarVAw. 

^ "Road Map to the Future". United States Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration. July/August 2002. http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/02jul/10.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-13. 

^ ISG Resources, Inc (December 2003). "Fly Ash Concrete Design for Chicago 100-Year Road Structure" (PDF). Case Study. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/conserve/c2p2/cases/wacker-dr.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-13. 

^ "Thin Surfacing - Effective Way of Improving Road Safety within Scarce Road Maintenance Budget" (PDF). Paper for presentation at the 2005 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada in Calgary, Alberta. Transportation Association of Canada. 2005. http://www.tac-atc.ca/english/pdf/conf2005/s16/uzarowski2.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-14. 

^ Minnesota DOT

^ Practical guidelines for CPR of Urban Roads: A compelling need for preserving city concrete streets led to the development of a methodology for scoping repairs and the undertaking of a comprehensive concrete pavement repair program in Grand Rapids, Michigan. June 2005. Better Roads.

^ IGGA

^ Minnesota DOT

^ How States Preserve Concrete Pavements: CPR pays off in extra pavement life. Better Roads. August 2005.

^ CPR brings dying pavement back to life: Georgia continues to be the leader in concrete pavement restoration, but as the word spreads other states are beginning to use this system to restore deteriorating pavements. April 1997, Roads & Bridges Magazine

External links

Find more about Road on Wikipedia's sister projects:

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Learning resources from Wikiversity

The Post-Roads of Europe 1781 Map

National Alliance Against Tolls

The Roadex project

The Greenroads Rating System

v  d  e

Roads and junctions

 

Types of road

High-speed

Access via

interchanges

Autobahn   Autocesta  Autopista  Autostrada  Autostrasse  Auto-estrada  Freeway  Motorway  HQDC

Other access

Arterial road  Collector/distributor road  Distributor road  Dual carriageway/divided highway  Express-collector setup  Expressway  Farm-to-market road  Highway  Link road  Parkway  Super two  Two-lane expressway  2+1 road   2+2 road   Bundesstrae

Low-speed

Standard

Boulevard  Business route  Frontage road  Regional road  Road  Single carriageway  Street   Kreisstrae

Low traffic

Alley  Backroad  Cul-de-sac  Driveway  Lane  Primitive road  Range road

Other

Concurrency  Concession road  Private highway  Special route   Toll road

Surfaces

Asphalt concrete  Brick  Chipseal  Cobblestone  Concrete  Corduroy  Dirt  Gravel  Ice  Macadam  Oiled (bitumen)  Plank  Tarmac

List of road types by features

 

Road junctions

Interchanges

(grade-separated)

Cloverleaf  Diamond  Directional T  Diverging diamond  Parclo  Trumpet  SPUI  Stack  Three-level diamond  Raindrop  Roundabout interchange

Intersections

(at-grade)

Box junction  Continuous flow  Hook turn  Jughandle  Michigan left  Quadrant roadway  Roundabout  Superstreet  3-way junction  Traffic circle  Bowtie

v  d  e

Types of road junction

Interchanges

(grade-separated)

Cloverleaf  Diamond  Directional T  Diverging diamond  Dumbbell  Parclo  Raindrop  Roundabout interchange  SPUI  Stack  Three-level diamond  Trumpet

Intersections

(at-grade)

Bowtie  Box junction  Continuous flow  Hook turn  Jughandle  Median u-turn crossover  Quadrant roadway  Superstreet  3-way junction  Roundabout  Traffic circle or Rotary

Categories: RoadsHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2009 | Articles needing additional references from February 2010 | All articles needing additional references

RNA Automation

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Company History

Founded in 1972, Rhein-Nadel Automation is the market leader throughout Europe and operates worldwide in parts handling technology. Rhein-Nadel Automation is a member of the Rheinnadel Group, which has been based since 1898 in the town of Aachen, Germany. Rhein-Nadel Automation have four manufacturing sites in Germany and individual manufacturing plants in the UK, Spain and Switzerland, together with a world-wide, decentralised distribution and service network with 28 subsidiaries.

History of the Company pallet wrap machine

1968 The department of the needle factory, so far only responsible for the internal construction of operating material and machines, trades under the name Rheinnadel Maschinenbau and begins working for external customers. powder filling machine

1972 Rheinnadel Maschinenbau now also uses the firm name Rhein-Nadel Automation GmbH and concentrates exclusively on the area of Feeding Technology. wrapping machinery

1980-1989 Rhein-Nadel Automation expands. The permanent establishment in Ergolding and the subsidiaries in Switzerland and Great Britain are founded.

1990-1999 Rhein-Nadel Automation continues to grow. The Spanish company Vibrant S.A. is purchased.

2000 With RNA Automated Systems Inc., the first subsidiary outside of Europe takes up its commercial activities in Canada.

2004 The Rheinnadel Group concentrates its activities on the area of Automation. RNA broadens its range with the components and continues to extend its development capacities.

RNA automation specialise in automated feeder and specialist handling systems offering vibratory bowl feeders, Linear Feeders, Centrifugal Feeders and Step Feeder systems. RNA also supply a range of specialist handling equipment including Vision Guided Robots, Tablet Inspection, Vision Inspection, Tray Loading and Bottle Handling.

Technology

RNA supplies a range of vibratory http://www.rna-uk.com/ , centrifugal feeders, linear and conveyor feed systems, and hopper elevator systems in different formates. RNA bowl tops and drive unitsis designed to work in harmony alongside each other and handle components from all areas of industry, providing the widest possible range of shapes and sizes made of any kinds of materials can be catered for.

In association with Hoppmann Corporation, RNA offers a full range of tooled centrifugal feeders. With RNA's feeder expertise the centrifugal feeder systems can be interfaced and supplied as a complete packaging line with further production transportation via downstream conveyor systems to subsequent packaging operations such as capping, labeling, flow wrapping and cartoning applications.

The RNA Step Feeder is a compact low noise alternative to a bowl feeding system and in many circumstances components can be tooled without the aid or air. The RNA step feeder is manufactured in such a way that the static hopper, which has a very low filling height, can be loaded manually. The components are collected from the hopper by elevating plates, pre-sorted and fed to the top without any further feeding technique until they reach the desired transfer height.

Directional Carpet Linear feeders are developed to orientate components where a step feeder or bowl feeder is not suitable They enable gentle handling of orientated components from bulk to escapement devices creating product accumulation prior to a machine or handling unit. Large Heavy & bulky components contaminated in oil or swarf can be orientated and conveyed to a machine using a carpet feeder.

Specialist Handling

RNA are the sole agents in the UK & Ireland for the SVIA range of Vision Guided Robotic Systems. All systems have a Robotic arm for handling and manipulating the product a camera system and share the same pc based control system and in most cases integrated with a standard ABB robot controller.

RNA alongside camera specialists Machine Vision Technology has developed a tablet inspection system to inspect and sort tablets up to and over 1000 parts per minute. The specification of a tablet inspection system is as follows:

A 600mm diameter vibratory bowl feeder in Stainless Steel and a variable speed controller. A speed of 800 - 1000 tablets per minute Outputs onto a conveyor with a reject sort facility. With up to four double speed progressive scan cameras and lighting mounted along the conveyor. A high speed PC with a 17 inch LCD display mounted in a SS enclosure. The system is designed to Pharmaceutical standards The software complies with FDA requirements, all documentation is to CFR 21 pt 11, with the fully validated version option.

References

SVIA Industrial Automation

www.rna-uk.com Company Website

Rhein-Nadel Automation Company Website

Learn about Robots-Industrial Robots

Categories: Automation | Industrial equipment | Industrial robotsHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from March 2008 | All articles needing additional references

Sunnyside Amusement Park

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Construction

View of beach in 1924

Prior to the construction of the park, the shoreline was a narrow stretch immediately to the south of the 1850s era rail lines. There was enough area for a restaurant and a small fenced off area was provided for changing into swimwear. To the east, the club-house of the Parkdale Canoe Club jutted out into the lake. wheel straightening

A plan was developed in 1913 by the new Toronto Harbour Commission to improve the shore lands from the foot of Bathurst Street to the Humber River. The plan, which included four miles (6 km) of breakwater, infilling of land, and the construction of the Lake Shore Boulevard, cost $13 million, and was paid for by the federal government. valve grinding

A boardwalk along the south side of Lake Shore Boulevard was built, from the Humber River east to Wilson Park Avenue, 24 feet (7.3 m) in width using white pine planks. This corresponded to the length of shoreline that was extended out into the lake. This boardwalk became the site of annual Easter Parades until 1953. It was rebuilt in 1934 as a make-work project and was paved using asphalt in the 1960s. refrigerant recovery machine

The Amusement Park lands themselves were completely created from sand dredged from the bottom of the bay and top soil from a farm in Pickering, Ontario. The original shoreline was extended into the lake by approximately 100 metres, from the foot of Wilson Park Avenue west to the Humber River, a distance of about 1 kilometre. Only a small length of the original shoreline and beach exists today, located between the Boulevard Club and the Canadian Legion building at the intersection of Dowling Avenue and Lake Shore Boulevard.

One of the first new buildings was the Sunnyside Pavilion, a curved structure providing a restaurant with views of the lake. It was located just to the east of Parkside Drive at the shoreline. Following this, the Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion and Dean's Sunnyside Pleasure Boats buildings were constructed. Soon after, concessions were requested and granted to operate amusements on the lands.

Sunnyside Amusement Park opened in 1922. At the time, there was an existing amusement park on Toronto Island at Hanlan's Point. It only operated a few more years until 1927 when a baseball stadium at the foot of Bathurst Street was built, replacing the stadium on the Island. Another amusement park, the Scarborough Beach Amusement Park was built in Scarborough, Ontario, to the east of Toronto.

Rides in 1923

Attractions

The park was popular for its large roller coaster, known as the 'Flyer', several merry-go-rounds, the Derby Racer steeplechase ride and numerous smaller attractions. It also hosted several 'stunt events' including flagpole sitting, famous boat burnings in Lake Ontario and fireworks displays.

Other popular attractions included outdoor and indoor musical concerts, night clubs, and restaurants and walking along the boardwalk. In 1923, dog races were held on the lawn in front of the Bathing Pavilion.

Bathing Pavilion in 1922

Bathing Pavilion

For more details on this topic, see Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion.

By the 1920s, swimming at the foot of Roncesvalles had been popular for over thirty years, as there was a swimming area near a pumping station. This changed in 1913 when the pumping station was demolished to make way for the bridge connecting Lakeshore Road and the King/Queen/Roncesvalles intersection. A staircase was built for pedestrians to walk down to the shoreline. A slide was installed for bathers to slide down into the water. By 1920, this area was filled in and the beach was moved further to the south.

On June 28, 1922, Toronto Mayor Alfred Maguire opened the Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion to help bathers change for the swim in the lake. The building, constructed of concrete, cost $300,000. Each wing held an outdoor changing area, lockers and showers, the women's side on the east, and men's side on the west. It offered over 7700 lockers for patrons, a roof garden for 400. Admission fees were 25 for adults and 15 for children, and bathing suits and towels could be rented. In the center was a staircase leading to an upper terrace which overlooked the change areas leading to a rear terrace which ran the full length of the building and overlooked the beach.

On July 29, 1925, due to coldness of the lake during the preceding two summers, the Sunnyside Pool, nicknamed the 'Tank', was opened beside the Bathing Pavilion to the east. It measured 300 feet (91 m) by 75 feet (23 m) and could accommodate 2,000 swimmers. At the time of construction, the pool was considered the largest outdoor swimming pool in the world. Admission fees were 35 for adults, 10 for children.

Sunnyside Pavilion and Tea Gardens, August 3, 1921

Sunnyside Pavilion

Sunnyside Pavilion provided two restaurants and a tea garden facing the lakeshore. It was curved into a crescent with the tea garden positioned within the semicircle. It was designed by the same architects and was in the same style as the Bathing Pavilion, immediately to the west.

It was built in 1917 on the south side of Lakeshore Road. When built, its south side was on the lakeshore. As infill proceeded it ended up about 50 metres from shore, on the north side of the new Lake Shore Boulevard. In 1920, the building was enlarged and a new south entrance was built facing the lake. The restaurant had the Blue Room for 400 diners/175 dancing couples, and the Rose Room for a further 300 diners/150 couples. Dancing followed supper, with music provided by the Joe DeCourcy live orchestra.

In 1936, the Pavilion was renovated and became known as the Club Esquire supper club, with stage shows and dancing.

In 1941, the building was converted into the Top Hat night club. It was demolished in 1956 to make way for the new westbound lanes of Lake Shore Boulevard.

Sunnyside Flyer

The Sunnyside Flyer roller-coaster, advertised as having the "dippiest-dips on the continent" was opened in 1923. It was designed by veteran amusement ride builder A. J. Miller, who had built most of the attractions at the prior Hanlan's Point amusement park, and had built roller coasters in North America and Blackpool, England. The coaster was redesigned in 1933 with increased height and speeds.

View of park showing Dean's Boats/Palais Royale at shoreline, 1923

Sunnyside Stadium

The Sunnyside Stadium softball and lacrosse field was opened on May 19, 1925 immediately to the east of the amusement park, next to the current Boulevard Club, then the Parkdale Canoe Club. It was the site of several popular women's softball leagues. It was bulldozed in 1956 for the current Boulevard Club parking lot.

Palais Royale/Dean's Sunnyside Pleasure Boats

Opening in 1922, the Palais Royale building provided a factory for Walter Dean to build his "Sunnyside Torpedo Canoe" on the lower floor, and the Palais Royale dance hall on the upper floor. The upper floor opened at ground level on the north, and the land sloped downwards to the lake shore line, where the lower level opened onto the lake. The factory also rented canoes and rowboats. Dean had been building boats in a nearby building that was demolished to build the amusement park and the Harbour Commission built the new building, which cost $80,000. The boat-building business ended not long after the opening of the amusement park, and Mr. Dean retired. The dance hall took over the whole building.

During the era of the amusement park, the dance hall operated as a nightclub with nightly live music along with special engagements from musicians such as Count Basie. From 1933 to 1950, Bert Niosi "Canada's King of Swing", provided the house orchestra. The hall still exists today as a special occasions event hall.

Demolition

View in 2007 showing Palais Royale

The plans for the Gardiner Expressway were known since 1943, as part of a City of Toronto Planning Board report which called for tens of miles of super-highways criss-crossing the Toronto urban area. But it was not until after several fires in the winter of 1955 that the Toronto Harbour Commission ordered the park's demolition, facilitating the building of the roadway. Lake Shore Boulevard was the scene of regular traffic jams and the park was seen to be impeding 'progress' to the development of Toronto.

Most rides were demolished, however several amusements including the Derby Racer were moved to the Canadian National Exhibition (C.N.E), and the carousel to Disneyland where it was renamed the King Arthur Carrousel. Only the Sunnyside Pool and Bathing Pavilion and the Palais Royale buildings survive in place as relics of the Park. For two summers afterwards, a small children's amusement area named 'Kiddieland' was operated to the south of Lake Shore Boulevard, the site of Budapest Park today. It was operated by Conklin Shows. A children's amusement park, 'Centreville Amusement Park', was later built on the Toronto Islands.

The old Lakeshore Road and its connecting bridge to the King/Queen/Roncesvalles intersection was demolished also. The Lake Shore Boulevard roadway was doubled from four lanes to eight lanes in the area of the amusement park with a large empty median between the lanes in each direction. For several years afterwards the median was used as parking lot for the annual Canadian National Exhibition. A pedestrian bridge was built to the south-side of Lake Shore Boulevard to replace the bridge and stairs that was demolished.

The Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion, one of the few surviving structures

Starting July 21, 1957 the Queen streetcars that travelled down the old bridge and served the shoreline and park were moved to a new track to the north of the rail lines, in the middle of the new 'The Queensway' roadway, and the old tracks were removed.

In 1964, the lands of the park were transferred from Harbour Commission ownership to the City of Toronto, which has operated Budapest Park along the shoreline ever since, but most of the remaining lands of the amusement park are vacant or are roadways or parking lots.

In 1972, the Sunnyside train station just to the north of the old park ceased operations.

The area today

For more details on this topic, see Sunnyside, Toronto.

The boardwalk was removed and replaced with a boardwalk made of recycled plastic planks. A children's playground was built just east of the Ryder Pool. A recreation trail, part of the Martin Goodman Trail, was built south of Lake Shore Boulevard through the area for cyclists and in-line skaters.

References and notes

Filey, Mike (1996). I Remember Sunnyside. Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-274-1. 

^ [Filey], pp. 68, 85

^ [Filey], pg. 53.

^ [Filey], pg. 78.

^ [Filey], pg. 56

^ [Filey], pg. 74

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sunnyside

Palais Royale

Sunnyside, Toronto - area of park

External links

Sunnyside Beach Park

Sunnyside Photos

Coordinates: 433817 792703 / 43.637923N 79.450786W / 43.637923; -79.450786

Categories: Defunct amusement parks in Canada | 1922 establishments | 1955 disestablishments | Buildings and structures in Toronto | Visitor attractions in Toronto

Native American cuisine

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Native American cuisine of North America

American Indians of the Eastern Woodlands planted what was known as the "Three Sisters": corn, beans, and squash. In addition, a number of other domesticated crops were popular during some time periods in the Eastern Woodlands, including a local version of quinoa, a variety of amaranth, sumpweed/marsh elder, little barley, maygrass, and sunflower.

In the Northwestern part of what is now the United States Native Americans used salmon and other fish, seafood, mushrooms, and berries, among other foods, including meats such as deer, duck, and rabbit. Rum was popular after its introduction by Chistopher Columbus. They were hunter-gatherers, not needing agriculture to supplement the abundant food supplies of their habitat. In what is now California, acorns were ground into flour, the main food for about 75 per cent of the population, and dried meats were prepared during the season when drying was possible. cocoa latte

Southeastern Native American cuisine alkalizer

Southern Native American culture forms the cornerstone of Southern cuisine. From their culture came one of the main staples of the Southern diet: corn (maize), either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to make hominy, also called masa, in a Native American technology known as nixtamalization. Corn was used to make all kinds of dishes from the familiar cornbread and grits to liquors such as whiskey, which were important trade items. cocoa liquor

Though a lesser staple, potatoes were also adopted from Native American cuisine and were used in many similar ways as corn.

Native Americans introduced the first Southerners to many other vegetables still familiar on southern tables. Squash, pumpkin, many types of beans, tomatoes (though these were initially considered poisonous), many types of peppers and sassafras all came to the settlers via the native tribes.

Many fruits are available in this region. Muscadines, blackberries, raspberries, and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans' diet.

To a far greater degree than anyone realizes, several of the most important food dishes of the Southeastern Indians live on today in the "soul food" eaten by both black and white Southerners. Hominy, for example, is still eaten ... Sofkee live on as grits ... cornbread [is] used by Southern cooks ... Indian fritters ... variously known as "hoe cake," ... or "Johnny cake." ... Indians boiled cornbread is present in Southern cuisine as "corn meal dumplings," ... and as "hush puppies," ... Southerns cook their beans and field peas by boiling them, as did the Indians ... like the Indians they cure their meat and smoke it over hickory coals.

- Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians.

Southern Native Americans also supplemented their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game. Venison was an important meat staple due to the abundance of white-tailed deer in the area. They also hunted rabbits, squirrels, opossums, and raccoons. Livestock, adopted from Europeans, in the form of hogs and cattle were kept. When game or livestock was killed, the entire animal was used. Aside from the meat, it was not uncommon for them to eat organ meats such as liver, brains and intestines. This tradition remains today in hallmark dishes like chitterlings (commonly called chitins) which are fried large intestines of hogs, livermush (a common dish in the Carolinas made from hog liver), and pork brains and eggs. The fat of the animals, particularly hogs, was rendered and used for cooking and frying. Many of the early settlers were taught Southern Native American cooking methods.

Dishes

Corn bread

Succotash

Corn bread

Nokake, Algonquin hoecakes

Fry bread is a dish made from ingredients distributed to Native Americans living on reservations.

Bean bread, made with corn meal and beans; popular among the Cherokee

Black drink, or asi, a Southeastern ceremonial drink made from the Yaupon Holly

Succotash, a trio of lima beans, tomatoes and corn

Pemmican, a concentrated food consisting of dried pulverized meat, dried berries, and rendered fat

Psindamoakan, a Lenape hunter's food made of parched cornmeal mixed with maple sugar

Bird brain stew, from the Cree tribe

Buffalo stew, from the Lakota also called Tanka-me-a-lo

Acorn mush, from the Miwok people

Acorn bread

Wojape, a Plains Indian pudding of mashed, cooked berries

Dry meats Jerky, smoked Salmon strips

Piki bread Hopi

Green chili stew

Mutton stew Navajo

Pueblo bread

Tiswin, a term used for several fermented beverages in the Southwest, including a corn or fruit beer of the Apache and a saguaro sap beer of the Tohono O'odham.

Walrus Flipper Soup, Inuit dish made from walrus flippers.

Stink Fish, Inuit dish, of dried fish, underground, until nice & ripe then eaten for later consumption, also done with fish heads.

Salted Salmon Inuit dish, brined salmon in a heavy concentration of salt water left for months to soak up salts.

Akutaq, also called "Eskimo Ice Cream", made from caribou or moose tallow and meat, berries, seal oil, and sometimes fish, whipped together with snow or water.

Native American cuisine of the Circum-Caribbean

This region comprises the cultures of the Arawaks, the Caribs, and the Ciboney. The Tano of the Greater Antilles were the first New World people to encounter Columbus. Prior to European contact, these groups foraged, hunted, fished. The Tano cultivated cassava, sweet potato, maize, beans, squash, pineapple, peanut, and peppers. Today these groups have mostly vanished, but their culinary legacy lives on.

Barbacoa, the origin of the English word barbecue, a method of slow-grilling meat over a fire pit

Jerk chicken with plaintains, rice and honey biscuit

Jerk, a style of cooking meat that originated with the Tano of Jamaica. Meat was applied with a dry rub of allspice, Scotch bonnet pepper, and perhaps additional spices, before being smoked over fire or wood charcoal.

Casabe, a crispy, thin flatbread made from cassava root widespread in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean and Amazonia.

Bammy, a Jamaican fried bread made from cassava and coconut milk or water.

Guanime, a Puerto Rican food similar to the tamale.

Funche or fungi, a corn mush traditional to Puerto Rico.

Cassareep, a sauce, condiment, or thickening agent made by boiling down the extracted juices of bitter cassava root.

Pepperpot, a spicy stew of Taino origin based on meat, vegetables, chili peppers, and boiled-down cassava juice, with a legacy stretching from Jamaica to Guyana.

Bush teas, popular as herbal remedies in the Virgin Islands and other parts of the Caribbean, often derive from indigenous sources, such as ginger thomas, soursop, inflamation bush, kenip, wormgrass, worry wine, and many other leaves, barks, and herbs.

Ouicou, a fermented, cassava-based beer brewed by the Caribs of the Lesser Antilles.

Taumali or taumalin, a Carib sauce made from the green liver meat of lobsters, chile pepper, and lime juice.

Native American cuisine of Mesoamerica

Main articles: Aztec cuisine and Maya cuisine

The pre-conquest cuisine of the Native Americans of Mesoamerica made a major contribution to shaping modern-day Mexican cuisine. The cultures involved included the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, and many more (see the List of pre-Columbian civilizations).

Some known dishes

Tamales

Tacos

Tamales

Tlacoyos (gordita)

Pozole

Mole

Guacamole

Salsa

Mezcal

Tortillas

Champurrado, a chocolate drink

Pupusas

Xocoltl

Pejelagarto, a fish with an alligator-like head seasoned with the amashito chile and lime

Pulque or octli, an alcoholic beverage of fermented maguey juice

Tepache, pineapple beer

Chili

Pupusas, thick cornmeal flatbread from the Pipil culture of El Salvador

Alegra, a candy made from puffed amaranth and boiled-down honey or maguey sap, in ancient times formed into the shapes of Aztec gods

Balch, Mayan fermented honey drink

Native American cuisine of South America

Andean cultures

Main article: Inca cuisine

This currently includes recipes known from the Quechua, Aymara and Nazca of the Andes.

Grilled guinea pig, a native to most of the Andes region this small rodent has been culivated for at least 4000 years

Roast guinea pig (cuy)

Fried green tomatoes, a nightshade relative native to Peru

Saraiaka, a corn liquor.

Chicha, a generic name for any number of indigenous beers found in South America. Though chichas made from various types of corn are the most common in the Andes, chicha in the Amazon Basin frequently use manioc. Variations found throughout the continent can be based on amaranth, quinoa, peanut, potato, coca, and many other ingredients.

Chicha morada, a Peruvian, sweet, unfermented drink made from purple corn, fruits, and spices.

Colada morada, a thickened, spiced fruit drink based on the Andean blackberry, traditional to the Day of the Dead ceremonies held in Ecuador. It is typically served with guagua de pan, a bread shaped like a swaddled infant (formerly made from cornmeal in Pre-Columbian times), though other shapes can be found in various regions.

Quinoa Porridge

Ch'arki, a type of dried meat

Humitas, similar to modern-day Tamales, a thick mixture of corn, herbs and onion, cooked in a corn-leaf wrapping. The name is modern, meaning bow-tie, because of the shape in which it's wrapped.

Mate de coca

Pachamanca, stew cooked in a hauta oven

Ceviche

Pataska, spicy stew made from boiled maize, potatoes, and dried meat.

Ceviche, marinated in acidic tumbo juice in Pre-Columbian times

Cancha or tostada, fried golden hominy

Llajwa, salsa of Bolivia

Llapingachos, mashed-potato cakes from Ecuador

Other South American cultures

Cheese-filled arepa

Arepa, a maize-based bread originating from the indigenous peoples of Colombia and Venezuela

Angu, an indigenous Brazilian type of corn mush

Pamonha, a Brazilian tamale

Cauim, a fermented beverage based on maize or manioc broken down by the enzymes of human saliva, traditional to the Tupinamb and other indigenous peoples of Brazil

Manioba, dish of boiled manioc leaves and smoked meat indigenous to the Brazilian Amazon

Moqueca, a Brazilian seafood stew

Tucupi, manioc-based broth used in Brazilian dishes such as pato no tucupi and tacac

Curanto, a Chilean stew cooked in an earthen oven originally from the Chono people of Chilo Island

Lapacho or taheebo, a medicinal tree bark infusion

Merken, a aj powder from the Mapuche of Patagonia

Pira caldo, Paraguayan fish soup

Chipa

Chipa, a corn flour or manioc-based bread traditional to Paraguay

Yerba mate, a tea made from the holly of the same name, derived from Guaran

Terer or ka'ay, a cold-brewed version of yerba mate

Cooking utensils

The earliest utensils, including knives, spoons, grinders, and griddles, were made from all kinds of organic materials, such as rock and animal bone. Gourds were also initially cultivated, hollowed, and dried to be used as bowls, spoons, ladels, and storage containers. Many Native American cultures also developed elaborate weaving and pottery traditions for making bowls, cooking pots, and containers. Nobility in the Andean and Mesoamerican civilizations were even known to have utensils and vessels smelted from gold, silver, copper, or other minerals.

Molinillo, a device used by Mesoamerican royalty for frothing cacao drinks

Metate and mano

Metate, a stone grinding slab used with a stone mano to process meal in Mesoamerica and one of the most notable Pre-Columbian artifacts in Costa Rica

Molcajete, a basalt stone bowl, used with a tejolote to grind ingredients as a Mesoamerican form of mortar and pestle

Batan, an Andean grinding slab used in conjunction with a small stone ua

Paila, an Andean earthenware bowl

Cuia, a gourd used for drinking mate in South America

Comal, a griddle used since Pre-Columbian times in Mexico and Central America for a variety of purposes, especially to cook tortillas

Burn, a clay griddle used by the Tano

Cooking baskets were woven from a variety of local fibers and sometimes coated with clay to improved durability. The notable thing about basket cooking and some native clay pot cooking is that the heat source, i.e. hot stones or charcoal, is used inside the utensil rather than outside. (also see Cookware and bakeware)

Crops and ingredients

Maize, beans and squash were known as the three sisters for their symbiotic relationship when grown together by the North American and Meso-American natives. If the South Americans had similar methods of what is known as companion planting it is lost to us today.

Non-animal foodstuffs

Acorn - Used to make flour and fertilizers for the plants.

Achiote or annatto seed, seasoning

Acuyo, seasoning

Agarita - berries

Agave nectar

Allspice or pimento, seasoning

Amaranth

American chestnut

Amole - stalks

Aspen - inner bark and sap (both used as sweetener)

Avocado

Barbados cherry or acerola

Beans - Throughout the Americas

Bear grass - stalks

Birch bark

Birch syrup

Blackberries

Blueberries

Box elder - inner bark (used as sweetener)

Cacao

Cactus (various species) - fruits

Canella winterana, or white cinnamon (used as a seasoning before cinnamon)

Cashew

Cassava - Primarily South America

Cattails - rootstocks

Century plant (a.k.a. mescal or agave) - crowns (tuberous base portion) and shoots

Chicle, gum

Chile peppers (including bell peppers)

Cherimoya

Chokecherries

Cholla - fruits

Coca - South and Central America

Cranberries

Culantro, used as a seasoning before cilantro

Currants

Custard-apple

Datil - fruit and flowers

Devil's claw

Dropseed grasses (various varieties) - seeds

Elderberries

Emory oak - acorns

Epazote, seasoning

Goldenberry

Gooseberries

Guarana

Guava

Hackberries

Hawthorne - fruit

Herba luisa

Hueinacaztli or "ear-flower"

Hickory - nuts

Hops

Horsemint

Huazontle

Jamb

Jicama

Juniper berries

Kaniwa

Kiwacha

Lamb's-quarters - leaves and seeds

Lepacho

Locust - blossoms and pods

Lcuma

Maca

Maize - Throughout the Americas, probably domesticated in or near Mexico

Mamey

Maple syrup and sugar, used as the primary sweetener and seasoning in Northern America

Mesquite - bean pods, flour/meal

Mint

Mexican anise

Mexican oregano

Mulberries

Nopales

Onions

Palmetto

Papaya

Passionfruit

Paw paw

Peanuts

Pecan - nuts

Pennyroyal - American False variety

Pigweed - seeds

Pine (including western white pine and western yellow pine) - inner bark (used as sweetener) and nuts

Pineapples - South America

Pinyon - nuts

Popcorn flower, herb

Potatoes - North and South America

Prickly pears

Prairie turnips

Pumpkins

Purslane - leaves

Quinoa - South America, Central America, and Eastern North America

Ramps - Wild onion

Raspberries

Rice - imported by Spanish

Sage

Saguaro - fruits and seeds

Salt

Sangre de drago

Sapote

Sassafras

Screwbean - fruit

Sedge - tubers

Sea grape or uva de playa

Shepherd's purse - leaves

Sotol - crowns

Soursop or guanbana

Spanish bayonet - fruit

Spanish lime or mamoncillo

Squash - Throughout the Americas

Stevia

Strawberries

Sumac - berries

Sunflower seeds

Sweet potato - South America

Sweetsop or sugar-apple

Tamarillo

Teaberry or wintergreen

Tobacco

Tomatillo

Tomato

Texas Persimmons

Tulip poplar - syrup made from bark

Tule - rhizomes

Tumbleweed[disambiguation needed] - seeds

Tumbo or taxo

Ua de gato

Vanilla

Vetch - pods

White evening primrose - fruit

White walnuts

Wild celery

Wild cherries

Wild grapes - fruit

Wild honey

Wild onion

Wild pea - pods

Wild roses

Wood sorrel leaves

Yacon nectar

Yaupon holly leaves

Yerba buena

Yerba mate

Yucca - blossoms, fruit, and stalks

Hunted or livestock

Antelope

Badger

Bear

Beaver

Bighorn sheep

Bison - Originally found throughout most of North America

Burro - from Europe

Camel - extinct

Cattle - important European import

Chipmunk

Deer

Dove

Duck

Elk

Geese

Ground hog

Grouse

Guanaco - Hunted in South America by hunter-gatherer societies, for ex. in Patagonia until the 19th century.

Guinea pig - Domesticated in the Andes

Hog - important European import

Honey wasp - Brachygastra mellifica, Brachygastra lecheguana, and Polybia occidentalis, a source of honey found from the Southwestern United States to Argentina

Horse - Although imported by Europeans, the horse was still very important to Native American cultures throughout the Americas (although famously on the North American Plains) in the historic era

Hutia

Iguana

Livestock

Llama - Domesticated in the Andes

Locust (cicada)

Manatee

Mastodon - extinct

Moose

Mountain lion

Mourning dove

Mule

Muscovy duck - Domesticated in Mesoamerica

Opossum

Otter

Passenger Pigeon - extinct

Peccaries

Pheasant

Porcupine

Prairie dog

Pronghorns (antelope)

Quail

Rabbit

Sheep - important European import

Skunk

Sloth

Stingless bee - Melipona beecheii and M. yucatanica, Mayan source of honey

Squirrel

Turkey

Turtle

Wood rat

Woolly mammoth - extinct

See also

Food of the Tlingit

Locavores

Transhumance

Hunter gatherer

Wild onion festival

References

^ http://www.nativeculinary.com/forum/index.php

^ http://www.nativetech.org/recipes/index.php

^ http://www.recipezaar.com/recipes/native-american

^ http://www.mle.matsuk12.us/american-natives/nw/nw.html

^ http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/NAIFood/acorns.htm

^ http://www.jerkyfaq.com/jerky/information/the-history-of-jerky.html

^ Dragonwagon, Crescent (2007). The Cornbread Gospels. Workman Publishing. ISBN 0-7611-1916-7. 

^ Hudson, Charles. "A Conquered People". The Southeastern Indians. The University of Tennessee Press. p. 498499. ISBN 0-87049-248-9. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Foods and ingredients of the indigenous people

Traditional Chiricahua recipes

Canadian Wild Foods

Bibliography

Niethammer, Carolyn. American Indian Food and Lore. New York: A Simon & Schuster Macmillan Company, 1974. ISBN 0-02-010000-0

v  d  e

Cuisine (List of cuisines)

Regional

Africa  Asia  Caribbean  Europe  Latin America  Mediterranean  Middle East  North America  Oceania  South Asia

Historical

Ancient Egyptian  Ancient Greek  Ancient Roman  Historical Chinese  Historical Indian  Medieval  Ottoman

Styles

Fast food  Fusion  Immigrant

Types of Food

Confectionery  Dairy products  Fruit  Herbs / Spices  Meat  Vegetable

Carbohydrate Staples

Bread  Cassava  Pasta  Potato  Quinoa  Rice  Sweet Potato  Yam

Types of Dish

Curry  Dip  Pizza  Salad  Sandwich  Sauce  Soup  Stew

Technical

Eating utensils  Food preparation utensils  Techniques  Weights and measures

See also

Kitchen  Meal (Breakfast  Lunch  Dinner)  Wikibooks:Cookbook

Categories: Native American culture | Native American cuisine | Latin American cuisine | North American cuisine | First Nations cultureHidden categories: Articles with links needing disambiguation

Omdurman

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Etymology

Omdurman was originally known as Wen-Dhurman in the Dinka language, the language of the original inhabitants of the Sudan, who have been pushed southwards by the Arab Muslims who currently occupied northern Sudan. The phrase 'Wen-Dhurman' means "Son Mourning his Mother." This is so because history has it that a mother of Deng Abuk, the legendary ancestry of the Dinka tribe who drowned when they were crossing River Nile, while migrating southwards. But her eldest son could not accept this tragedy, and thus remained on the River crying for days, until passers-by found him. When asked why he was crying, he responded that he was mourning his mum; and hence thus became the name of that place.

History women's ankle socks

Battle of Omdurman stocking suspenders

In 1884, Muammad Amad, "the Mahdi", made his military headquarters in the village of Omdurman. The conflicts that followed over the next fifteen years have become known as the Mahdist War. Following the defeat of the besieged defenders of Khartoum in 1885, the Mahdi's successor, Khalifa Abdullahi ibn Muammad, made Omdurman his capital. cotton knee socks

Map of Ohmdurman with Khartoum and Bahri

The city, now the location of the tomb of the Mahdi, grew rapidly. However, in the Battle of Omdurman in 1898 (which actually took place in the nearby village of Kerreri), Lord Kitchener decisively defeated the Mahdist forces, ensuring British control over the Sudan, and killed Khalifa.

Kitchener restored Khartoum as the capital and, from 1899 until 1956 Sudan was jointly governed by Great Britain and Egypt. Although most of the city was destroyed in the battle, the Mahdi's tomb was restored and refurbished.

The aftermath of a JEM attack on Omdurman in 2008

On the 10 May 2008 the Darfur rebel group of the Justice and Equality Movement moved into the city where they engaged in heavy fighting with Sudanese government forces. Their goal was to topple Omar Hassan al-Bashir's government, though their success as of the 12 May and damage to the city is not known.

Demographics

Mahdist in the Khalifa's house, Omdurman 1936

Year

Population

1909 (Census)

42.779

1941

116.196

1956

113.600

1973

299.399

1983

526.284

1993

1.271.403

2007 Estimate

3.127.802

Arts

Boat building

Depicted as an icon for nationalism and diversity, Omdurman has been featured in numerous poems and songs. As the uno national capital of Sudan, the word "national" is tied to many of the city attractions. Some of Omdurman's famous arts facilities include National Theatre, Al-Arays (Puppets) Theatre, Alwataniya Cinema, Sudan TV and radio station studios, The Higher Institute for Music and Theatre and Qasr Alshabab o Alatfal (Youth & Kids Palace).

Every Friday in Omdurman one can see the Whirling Dervishes. The whirling Dervishes are heterodox Sufi Muslims who wear colourful patchwork robes and dance to the beat of drums, twirling and stamping their feet until they go into a trance. They consider this dance a ritual from Islam's earliest days, though it is generally considered in Sudan and abroad as a peculiar local Folklore. At the height of the dance, participants say that their souls communicate with Allah (i.e. God, in Arabic) and are cleansed of evil. The spell is only broken with the call to evening prayer.

Education

Omdurman school

There are several educational institutions in Omdurman. Some of the notable schools include:

Elementary Schools:

Omdurman Elnamozegia Elementary School

High Schools:

Abu Kadok High School

Almotmar High School

Omdurman Ahlia High School

Omdurman High School

Wadi Saydna High School- one of famous historical high schools in Sudan

Colleges and universities include:

Ahfad University for Women

College of Technological Sciences

Omdurman Ahlia University

Omdurman Islamic University

University of Holy Quran and Holy Sciences

Furthermore, there are several public libraries in Omdurman. Albashir Alrayah Library is a famous library and hot destination for students, researchers and intellectuals. The library hosts several lectures and panels from different guest speakers and organizations.

Shopping and recreation

Souqs (markets)

The old bridge

Omdurman has several multicultural tourist targets and facilities that attract local and international visitors. Souq is the Arabic term for a market. Souq Omdurman, Souq Libya and Souq Aljilod are considered the largest merchandise spots common sceneries at Alshohada. Along this busy and noisy environment, there lies two hospitals: Omdurman Hospital and for Sudanese commodities and gadgets.

Another important destination in Omdurman is Almourada. Famous for its fish market along the banks of the Nile, Almourada is one of the old historical neighbourhoods in Omdurman. Fishermen and local merchants post at the shores selling their fresh catch. It is also home of Al-Mourada football club, named after the neighbourhood, a top Sudan Premier League team that has represented Sudan on numerous CAF, and other regional tournaments.

Another shopping area is Alshohada or Hay Alsouq , Omdurman's downtown area. Transportation lines, buses, taxis, canteens, barbershops, fast-food restaurants and music stores are Blue Nile Hospital with several pharmacies at walking distances.

Another important speciality trading area is Abu Rouf. Known for its small-scale crafts including metallic beds, boat-making and extracting wood. Located along the shores of the Nile, swimming is considered an eternal hobby of Abu Rouf residents.

Just outside of Omdurman there is a camel market, where merchants come to buy and sell their desert animals. The white or paler coloured camels are the more desired and therefore highly prized, and many of the camels wear leather kitabs, talismatic pouches containing prayers to protect to the animals on their long walk to the souq.

Omdurman city has its own industrial area, in which many of huge factories are working under the control of Sudanese government, in terms of production control and quality assurance.

Famous places and buildings

Outdoors

Omdurman main mosque 1936

There are several outdoor activities and destinations that are worth visiting in Omdurman. This include Almourada Family Park, on the opposite side of Souq Almourada. Rivera Recreational is another modern park along the shores of the Nile that features outdoor dining and children playing facilities. The recreational facility has a large rental ballroom that is available for the public for hosting events such as weddings.

Another attraction is also the tomb of Sheikh Hamad El Nil Tomb, a Muslim propagator, who was active in Sudan during the Funj Kingdom (1505-1820). The tomb and the adjoining mosque are located on the western side of Omdurman. The followers of Quadriya sect Sufi gather on Friday afternoons for Zikr (recital). The congregations usually attract large crowds of local people and tourists.

Mosque in Omdurman

There is also Souq El Naaga, which is a typical pastoral market, Located southwest of Omdurman, cattle sales are held at the market, where it also offers various basic necessities for pastorals. The major attraction of the Souq is its stalls of freshly slaughtered meat and traditional food sheds where roasted and stewed meat is served. Camel meat, and its spiced uncooked liver are considered delicious delicacies to many Sudanese. The Camel Market Located west of Omdurman, this Souq is one of the main trading centers of camels in Sudan. Camels offered in this market are brought in mainly from western Sudan and subsequently are usually herded overland to markets in Lower Egypt.

Hospitals

In a country torn by wars and poverty, more facilitated hospitals are needed in the whole of Sudan. Furthermore being a highly-dense city, small private clinics that are scattered throughout the city, are a common sight, especially close to Hay Alshohada. Some notable hospitals include:

Omdurman Hospital, a public hospital with an emergency centre.

Blue Nile Hospital, a private hospital

Aldayat Hospital, a public hospital specializing in pregnancy and delivery

Alsilah Altiby, a private police hospital

Altigany Almahy Hospital, a public historical hospital specializing in psychological and mental disorders

Sports

With Sudan's best three football clubs based in Omdurman, the city is considered as the centre of football in Sudan. Al-Hilal, Al-Merreikh and Al-Mourada football clubs constitute the triplet of Sudanese football. Other sports played include basketball, with Coptic School Omdurman Club being one team that plays the sport.

Al-Hilal versus Al-Merrikh

When historic rivals Alhilal and Almerrikh are play against each other, precautions and advisory announcements are posted. On game days, police forces circle the pitch, local companies compete to support the teams, musical instruments play, newspapers are burnt, and vehicle horns honk. Early fan arrivals are recommended

Some of Omdurman's football stadiums include: Al Merreikh Stadium, AlHilal Stadium, Almourada Stadium, Stade de Omdurman and Dar Alrayada.

Communication and mass transit

Telephone system

The telephone system in Sudan has greatly improved since the privatization of the telephone company. The telephone service was further improved by the introduction of the cellular system in 1996. Khartoum State (including Omdurman) follows closed telephone numbering plan as follows:

(87)xxx-xxx (calls within Khartoum State that includes Omdurman, Khartoum North and Khartoum city)

249-187-xxx-xxx (call from outside Sudan)

Television and radio

Alethaa Street

Omdurman features the buildings and studios of the national TV and radio stations. "Hona Omdurman", (This is Omdurman), is the name of Sudan's national radio station. Other local radio stations include: Taybah 103 FM, AlKawthar, Mango 96, 100 FM and radio Holy Quran stations.

There are two TV stations in Sudan, Sudan TV which is the national TV of Sudan and Blue Nile Channel, a private channel that is part of Arab Radio and TV network package.

Public transportation

There are several bus lines that operate within Khartoum state. From Khartoum city to Omdurman, the main lines include Alshohada, Atthoura (passes through Alshohada) and Alfitihab. Minivans, Amjaads (4-wheeled microvans), taxis and raksha (s) (autorickshaw) are also common mass transportation schemes.

Airport

According to Sudanese officials, a new airport facility has been proposed 30 miles (50 km) south of Omdurman. Arguably speaking to be within the non-defined boundaries of Omdurman, the project is estimated to be completed by 2010 with an estimated budget of $530 million.

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Omdurman

^ Curfew in capital as Sudanese army clash near Khartoum with Darfur rebels - Sudan Tribune 2008-05-10

^ Sudanese rebels 'reach Khartoum' - BBC News 2008-05-10

^ PHOTOS: Sudan capital after today's attack from Darfur JEM - Sudan Tribune 2008-05-10

^ http://bevoelkerungsstatistik.de

^ Encyclopedia Britannica von 1911: Band 20, Seite 101

^ CIA World Facts, Telephone Systems

^ Arab Times, Khartoum New Airport

External links

FallingRain Map - elevation = 390m (Red dots are railways)

Categories: Cities, towns and villages in Sudan | Omdurman | Communities on the Nile River | Khartoum (state)

XFL

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Founding

Created as a joint venture between NBC and the World Wrestling Federation under the company name "XFL, LLC", the XFL was created as a "single-entity league", meaning that the teams were not individually owned and operated franchises (as in the NFL), but that the league was operated as a single business unit. Vince McMahon's original plan was to purchase the CFL (after the CFL initially approached him about purchasing the Toronto Argonauts) , while NBC was moving ahead at the time with Time Warner to create a football league of their own.

The concept of the league was first announced on February 3, 2000. The XFL was originally conceived to build on the success of the NFL and professional wrestling. It was hyped as "real" football without penalties for roughness and with fewer rules in general. The loud games featured players and coaches with microphones and cameras in the huddle and in the locker rooms. Stadiums featured trash-talking public address announcers and scantily-clad cheerleaders. Instead of a pre-game coin toss, XFL officials put the ball on the ground and let a player from each team scramble for it to determine who received the kickoff option, which led to the first XFL injury. This type of "coin toss" has since been referred to as the "injury zone." honeycomb core

The XFL had impressive television coverage for an upstart league, with three games televised each week on NBC, UPN, and TNN. aluminum composite panel

Contrary to popular belief, the "X" in XFL did not stand for "extreme," as in "Extreme Football League." When the league was first organized in 1999, it was originally supposed to stand for "Xtreme Football League;" however, there was already a league in formation at the same time with that name, and so promoters wanted to make sure that everyone knew that the "X" did not actually stand for anything (though McMahon would comment that "if the NFL stood for the 'No Fun League', the XFL will stand for the 'extra fun league'"). The other Xtreme Football League, which was also organized in 1999, merged with Arena Football before ever fielding its first game. aluminum honeycomb

Draft

Main article: 2001 XFL Draft

The first and only main draft for the league took place over a three day time period from October 28, 2000 to October 30, 2000. A total of 475 players were selected initially, with 65 additional players selected in a supplemental draft on December 29, 2000.

2001 season

This section does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009)

The XFL's opening game took place on February 3, 2001, one year after the concept of the league was announced, and immediately following the NFL's Super Bowl. The first game was between the New York/New Jersey Hitmen and the Las Vegas Outlaws at Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas. The game ended with a 19-0 victory for the Outlaws, and was watched on NBC by an estimated 14 million viewers. During the telecast, NBC switched over to the game between the Orlando Rage and the Chicago Enforcers, which was a closer contest than the blowout taking place in Las Vegas. The show had a 9.5 Nielsen rating.

Although the XFL began with better-than-expected TV ratings (the opening-week games actually delivered ratings double those of what NBC had promised advertisers and the Saturday broadcast had more viewers than the NFL Pro Bowl) and fair publicity, the audience declined sharply after the first week of the season, going from a 9.5 rating to a 4.6 in just one week, and the media attacked the league for what was perceived as a poor quality of play. A further problem was that the XFL itself was the brainchild of Vince McMahon, a man who was ridiculed by mainstream sports journalists due to the stigma attached to professional wrestling as being "fake"; many journalists even jokingly speculated whether any of the league's games were rigged, although nothing of this sort was ever proven.

Teams

Eastern Division

Orlando Rage

(2001)

Chicago Enforcers

(2001)

New York/New Jersey Hitmen

(2001)

Birmingham Thunderbolts

(2001)

Western Division

Los Angeles Xtreme

(2001)

San Francisco Demons

(2001)

Memphis Maniax

(2001)

Las Vegas Outlaws

(2001)

2001 standings

Eastern Division

Won

Lost

Orlando Rage

8

2

Memphis Maniax

5

5

New York/New Jersey Hitmen

4

6

Birmingham Thunderbolts

2

8

Western Division

Won

Lost

Los Angeles Xtreme

7

3

Chicago Enforcers

5

5

San Francisco Demons

5

5

Las Vegas Outlaws

4

6

Awards

Most Valuable Player: Tommy Maddox, QB, Los Angeles Xtreme

Million Dollar Game MVP: Jose Cortez, K, Los Angeles Xtreme

Coach of the Year: Al Luginbill, Los Angeles Xtreme

Statistical leaders

Rushing Attempts: 153 James Bostic (Birmingham Thunderbolts)

Rushing Yards: 800 John Avery (Chicago Enforcers)

Rushing Touchdowns: 7 Derrick Clark (Orlando Rage)

Receiving Catches: 93 Christopher Lonson (Orlando Rage)

Receiving Yards: 828 Stepfret Williams (Birmingham Thunderbolts)

Receiving Touchdowns: 69 Chris Ortiz (Los Angeles Xtreme)

Passing Attempts: 342 Tommy Maddox (Los Angeles Xtreme)

Passing Completions: 196 Tommy Maddox (Los Angeles Xtreme)

Passing Yards: 2186 Tommy Maddox (Los Angeles Xtreme)

Passing Touchdowns: 18 Tommy Maddox (Los Angeles Xtreme)

Passing Interceptions: 10 Brian Kuklick (Orlando Rage)

Interceptions: 5 Corey Ivy (Chicago Enforcers)

Quarterback Sacks: 7 Antonio Edwards and Kelvin Kinney (both Las Vegas Outlaws)

Statistics

2001 Passing Leaders (over 100 pass attempts)

Name, Team

Att

Comp

%

Yards

YDs/Att

TD

TD %

INT

INT %

Long

Sacks/Yds Lost

Rating

Jeff Brohm, ORL

119

69

58.0

993

8.34

9

7.6

3

2.5

51t

11/78

99.9

Kevin McDougal, CHIC

134

81

60.4

1168

8.72

5

3.7

3

2.2

56

8/69

91.9

Casey Weldon, Birm

164

102

62.2

1228

7.49

7

4.3

5

3

80t

7/44

86.6

Jim Druckenmiller, Mem

199

109

54.8

1499

7.53

13

6.5

7

3.5

49

15/89

86.2

Ryan Clement, LV

138

78

56.5

805

5.83

9

6.5

4

2.9

46

10/59

83.2

Tommy Maddox, LA

342

196

57.3

2186

6.39

18

5.3

9

2.6

63

14/91

83.1

Mike Pawlawski, SF

297

186

62.6

1659

5.59

12

4

6

2

35

16/141

82.6

Wally Richardson, NY/NJ

142

83

58.5

812

5.72

6

4.2

6

4.2

33t

17/107

71.1

Brian Kuklick, ORL

122

68

55.7

994

8.15

6

4.9

10

8.2

81t

7/42

64.7

2001 Passing Leaders (under 100 pass attempts)

Name, Team

Att

Comp

%

Yards

YDs/Att

TD

TD %

INT

INT %

Long

Sacks/Yds Lost

Rating

Craig Whelihan, CHIC/Mem

5

4

80.0

30

6

0

0

0

0

12

0/0

91.7

Tim Lester, CHIC

77

40

51.9

581

7.55

4

5.2

5

6.5

68t

13/68

67.1

Charles Puleri, NY/NJ

64

29

45.3

411

6.42

2

3.1

2

3.1

77t

4/39

64.0

Marcus Crandell, Mem

69

33

47.8

473

6.86

1

1.4

2

2.9

53

9/62

63.3

Pat Barnes, SF

80

36

45.0

379

4.74

3

3.8

2

2.5

34

5/38

61.4

Corte McGuffey, NY/NJ

48

25

52.1

329

6.85

0

0

2

4.2

54

5/38

56.7

Mark Grieb, LV

78

37

47.4

408

5.23

3

3.8

4

5.1

41t

5/44

54.9

Jay Barker, Birm

65

37

56.9

425

6.54

1

1.5

5

7.7

92t

10/64

49.8

Mike Cawley, LV

38

17

44.7

180

4.74

1

2.6

2

5.3

26

10/83

45.9

Paul Failla, CHIC

5

1

20.0

5

1

0

0

0

0

5

2/12

39.6

Graham Leigh, Birm

97

44

45.4

499

5.14

1

1

6

6.2

36

8/62

39.0

Scott Milanovich, LA

9

2

22.2

45

5

0

0

1

11.1

39

0/0

8.3

2001 Rushing Leaders

Name, Team

Att

Yds

Ave.

Long

TDs

John Avery, Chi

150

800

5.3

73t

5

Rod Smart, LV

146

555

3.8

31

3

James Bostic, Birm

153

536

3.5

56

2

Rashaan Salaam, Mem

114

528

4.6

39t

5

Derrick Clark, Orl

94

395

4.2

19

7

Saladin McCullough, LA

88

384

4.4

22

5

Joe Aska, NY/NJ

82

329

4.0

42

3

Micheal Black, Orl

83

320

3.9

20

0

LeShon Johnson, Chi

72

287

4.0

41

6

Rashaan Shehee, LA

61

242

4.0

28

0

Kelvin Anderson, SF

53

231

4.4

39

1

Jim Druckenmiller, Mem

31

208

6.7

36

0

Juan Johnson, SF

33

172

5.2

19

0

Wally Richardson, NY/NJ

26

148

5.7

24

0

2001 Receiving Yardage Leaders (over 175 yards)

Name, Team

Rec

Yds

Ave.

Long

TDs

Stepfret Williams, Birm

51

828

16.2

92t

2

Charles Jordan, Mem

45

823

18.3

49

4

Jeremaine Copeland, LA

67

755

11.3

34

5

Dialleo Burks, ORL

34

659

19.4

81t

7

Aaron Bailey, CHIC

32

546

17.1

50

3

Quincy Jackson, Birm

45

531

11.8

36t

6

Darnell McDonald, LA

34

456

13.4

39

8

Darryl Hobbs, Mem

30

419

14

49t

5

Jimmy Cunningham, SF

50

408

8.2

26

3

Kirby Dar Dar, NY/NJ

22

405

18.4

77t

2

Kevin Swayne, ORL

27

400

14.8

51t

2

Brian Roberson, SF

36

395

11

35

2

Kevin Prentiss, Mem

25

383

15.3

53

0

Mario Bailey, ORL

27

379

14

49t

3

Zola Davis, NY/NJ

29

378

13

26

4

James Hundon, SF

28

357

12.8

34

0

Zechariah Lord, CHIC

20

301

15.1

46

0

John Avery, CHIC

17

297

17.5

68t

2

Yo Murphy, LV

27

273

10.1

35

3

Anthony Dicosmo, NY/NJ

26

268

10.3

30

0

Latario Rachal, LA

24

254

10.6

24

0

Rod Smart, LV

27

245

9.1

46

0

Mike Furrey, LV

18

242

13.4

41t

1

Ed Smith, Birm

25

195

7.8

16

1

XFL rule changes

Despite boasts by WWF promoters of a "rules-light" game and universally negative reviews from the mainstream sports media early on, the XFL played a brand of 11-man outdoor football that was recognizable, aside from the opening game sprint to determine possession and some other changes, some modified during the season. In fact, most of the rule changes were inherited from the 1970s World Football League.

Grass stadiums

All XFL teams had to play in outdoor stadiums with grass surfaces. No domed stadiums, artificial turf stadiums, or retractable roof stadiums were allowed. (This happened to occur during Giants Stadium's brief experiment with natural grass; the stadium's turf did not hold up well in the winter and early spring weather and the stadium reverted to its traditional artificial turf in 2003.)

Opening scramble

Replacing the coin toss at the beginning of each game was an event in which one player from each team sought to recover a football 20 yards away in order to determine possession. Both players lined up side-by-side on one of the 30-yard lines, with the ball being placed at the 50-yard line. At the whistle, the two players would run toward the ball and attempt to gain possession; whichever player gained possession first was allowed to choose possession (as if he had won a coin toss in other leagues). The scramble infamously led to the first XFL injury: Orlando Rage free safety Hassan Shamsid-Deen separated his shoulder in the scramble during the XFL's opening weekend. This injury would keep Shamsid-Deen out for the rest of the season.

No PAT (point after touchdown) kicks

After touchdowns there were no extra point kicks, due to the XFL's perception that an extra point kick was a "guaranteed point." To earn a point after a touchdown, teams ran a single offensive down from the two-yard line (functionally identical to the NFL/NCAA/CFL two-point conversion), but for just a single point. By the playoffs, two-point and three-point conversions had been added to the rules. Teams could opt for the bonus points by playing the conversion farther back from the goal line.

This rule, as originally implemented, was similar to the WFL's "Action Point," and was identical to a 1968 experiment by the NFL and American Football League, used only in preseason interleague games that year.

Overtime

Ties were resolved in similar fashion to the NCAA and present-day CFL game, with at least one possession by each team, starting from the opponent's 20 yard line. There were differences: there were no first downs teams had to score within four downs, and the team that had possession first in overtime could not attempt a field goal until fourth down. If that team managed to score a touchdown in fewer than four downs, the second team would only have that same number of downs to match or beat the result. If the score was still tied after one overtime period, the team that played second on offense in the first OT would start on offense in the second OT.

Bump and run

The XFL allowed full bump and run coverage early in the season. Defensive backs were allowed to hit wide receivers any time before the quarterback released the ball, as long as the hit came from the front or the side (similar to the NCAA). In an effort to increase offensive production, bump and run was restricted to the first five yards from the line of scrimmage (similar to NFL) following the fourth week of the season.

Forward motion

Unlike the NFL, but like the World Football League, Arena Football League and the Canadian Football League before it, the XFL allowed one offensive player to move toward the line of scrimmage once he was outside the tackles.

Halo rule / live punts

The heavily-hyped "no fair catch" rule (announcers tended to mention it on almost every punt/kickoff) was paired with a five-yard zone excluding players of the kicking team around potential returners before the ball touched them or the ground, similar to rules in Canadian football, rugby union, and contemporary NCAA rules (where the term "halo" was applied, though the XFL called it instead the "danger zone"). But instead of making punt returns more exciting, it often had the opposite effect, since the XFL players' inexperience with the rule caused a high number of game-delaying penalties.

The fair catch had previously been abolished from Canadian rules, NCAA rules (but only for the 1950 season), and rugby league.

Another difference was that after touching ground 25 yards or more beyond the line of scrimmage, punts could be recovered and advanced by all players of the kicking team. This led to more quick kicks being taken on third-down-and-long situations in the one season of the small league than had been seen in the NFL over several preceding decades of longer seasons. This XFL rule was similar to a rule that had been in effect in American football in the 1910s and part of the 1920s.

XFL penalized 10 yards from the succeeding spot for punts going out of bounds, even if they first touched the ground (but not a player of the receiving team).

For the initial weeks of the season, the XFL forbade all players on the kicking team from going downfield before a kick was made from scrimmage on that down, similarly to a rule the NFL considered in 1974. For the rest of the season the XFL modified it to allow one player closest to each sideline downfield ahead of the kick, the same modification the NFL adopted to their change just before their 1974 exhibition games started.

The purpose of these provisions was to keep play going after the ball was punted, encouraging the kicking team to make the ball playable and the receiving team to run it back.

Roster and salaries

The XFL limited each team to an unusually low 38 players (roughly analogous to the 42 for CFL rosters, as opposed to 53 on NFL teams and 80 or more on unlimited college rosters). This resulted, most commonly, in each team only carrying two quarterbacks and one kicker who doubled as the punter.

The XFL paid standardized player salaries. Quarterbacks earned U.S. $5,000 per week, kickers earned $3,500, and all other uniformed players earned $4,500 per week, though a few players got around these restrictions (Los Angeles Xtreme players Noel Prefontaine, the league's lone punting specialist, and Matt Malloy, a wide receiver) by having themselves listed as backup quarterbacks. Players on a winning team received a bonus of $2,500 for the week, $7,500 for winning a playoff game. The team that won the championship game split $1,000,000 (roughly $25,000 per player). Furthermore, players did not receive any fringe benefits, meaning players had to pay for their own health insurance.

Broadcast overview

Sky cam

Although the XFL was not the first football league to feature the "sky cam," which enables TV viewers to see behind the offensive unit, it helped to popularize its unique capabilities. The sky cam is currently used in NFL broadcasts on all major networks. This perspective was originally available only in standard definition, but is now broadcast in high definition during most major NFL games each week.

Broadcast schedule

At the beginning of the season, NBC showed a feature game at 8 p.m. Eastern Time on Saturday nights, also taping a second game. The second game, in some weeks, would air in the visiting team's home market and be put on the air nationally if the feature game was a blowout (as was the case in week one) or encountered technical difficulties (as was the case in week two). Two games were shown each Sunday: one at 4 p.m. Eastern on TNN (now Spike TV) and another at 7 p.m. Eastern on UPN (which has since merged with The WB to form The CW).

The XFL also had a fairly extensive local radio presence, often using nationally recognized disc jockeys. The morning radio duo of Rick and Bubba, for instance, was the radio broadcast team for the Birmingham Thunderbolts, while Opie and Anthony had covered pregame for NBC. Super Dave Osborne was a sideline reporter for Los Angeles Xtreme broadcasts on KLSX; WMVP carried Chicago Enforcers games.

In the third week of the season, the games were sped up through changes in the playing rules, and broadcasts were subjected to increased time constraints. The reason was the reaction of Lorne Michaels, creator and executive producer of Saturday Night Live, to the double-overtime win by the Los Angeles Xtreme against the Chicago Enforcers. The game ended at 11:45 p.m. Eastern, with the start of SNL pushed back to 12:20 a.m. Sunday morning. This angered Michaels, who expected high ratings with Jennifer Lopez as the night's host. Lopez had just become the first actress-singer in history to record the top-selling album in the United States (J. Lo) and to star in the most popular movie (The Wedding Planner) at the same time. In a rare SNL move, the Lopez show actually started on time for its live audience and was broadcast via tape delay. For the rest of the season, the XFL cut off coverage at 11:00 Eastern Time, regardless of whether or not the game was over.

Broadcast teams

NBC (first team): Matt Vasgersian, Jesse Ventura, Fred Roggin and Mike Adamle were the opening week announcers. From week two to week five, Jim Ross replaced Vasgersian. Roggin left the broadcast team late in the season.

NBC (second team): Jim Ross, Jerry Lawler and Jonathan Coachman was the opening-week team. From week two to week five, Vasgersian replaced Ross. Lawler left the XFL (and WWF) after week five in the aftermath of the firing of his then-wife, Stacy Carter, who went by the ring name of "The Kat". Lawler walked away in protest. Dick Butkus filled in for the rest of the season.

TNN: Craig Minervini, Bob Golic, and Kip Lewis.

UPN: Chris Marlowe, Brian Bosworth, Chris Wragge and Michael Barkann.

Media response

The XFL aimed to attract two distinct audiences to games: wrestling fans and football fans. The XFL also tried to attract fans from other areas of entertainment (e.g., movies).

Many football fans distrusted the league because of its relationship to pro wrestling. They had a hard time accepting that a close, come-from-behind win or a controversial ending had not been scripted in advance, although there was no evidence to support this. The league was panned by critics as boring football with a tawdry broadcast style, although the broadcasts on TNN and to a lesser extent UPN and the Matt Vasgersian-helmed NBC coverage were comparatively professional and workmanlike. Longtime WWE play-by-play man Jim Ross, who has otherwise received praise for his calling of wrestling matches over the years, got the bulk of the criticism for his play-by-play calls of XFL games despite his 30+ years of experience in calling wrestling matches as well as calling play-by-play for the NFL's Atlanta Falcons in the early 1990s.

Scoring was so scarce that bookmakers could not set the over-under total low enough. Wise gamblers who took the under, often in the mid 30s, would win consistently they could even parlay the under for all four games in a weekend and win on a regular basis. Towards the end of the season, bookies needed to make the totals in the upper 20s, highly unusual in pro football gambling circles. The league was forced to change rules during the season to afford receivers more protection, but the mid-season rule changes did little to bolster league credibility.

In 2000, before the XFL's launch, the league aired a series of cheerleader commercials on NBC, featuring adult models such as Pennelope Jimenez, Karen McDougal, and Rachel Sterling. The most famous one featured them as some of the cheerleaders taking a shower in the locker room. Using clever camera angles and strategically placed objects, the commercial gave viewers the titillating illusion that the cheerleaders were nude in the shower with little left to the imagination. The edgy XFL commercials backfired and caused a controversy. Deemed too risqu by the media, the commercials were quickly withdrawn before the debut of the league.

End of season and failure

On April 21, 2001, the season concluded as the Los Angeles Xtreme defeated the San Francisco Demons 38-6 in the XFL Championship Game (which was originally given the Zen-like moniker "The Big Game at the End of the Season", but was later dubbed the Million Dollar Game, after the amount of money awarded to the winning team).

Though paid attendance at games remained respectable, if unimpressive (overall attendance were only 10% below what the league's goal had been at the start of the season), the XFL ceased operations after just one season due to low TV ratings. Facing stiff competition from March Madness, the NBC telecast of the Chicago/NY-NJ game on March 31 received a 1.5 rating, at that time the lowest ever for any major network primetime television broadcast in the United States. (On July 19, 2006, ABC's premiere of reality game The One: Making a Music Star broke that record with only a 1.3 that show would be cancelled before airing another episode.)

Despite initially agreeing to broadcast XFL games for two years and owning half of the league, NBC announced it would not broadcast a second XFL season, thus admitting failure in its attempt at airing replacement pro football. WWF Chairman Vince McMahon initially announced that the XFL would continue, as it still had UPN and TNN as broadcast outlets. In fact, expansion teams were being explored for cities such as Washington, D.C. and Detroit, Michigan. However, in order to continue broadcasting XFL games, UPN demanded that WWF SmackDown broadcasts be cut from two hours to one and a half hours. McMahon found these terms unacceptable and he announced the XFL's closure on May 10, 2001.

One reason for the failure of the league to catch on, despite its financial solvency and massive visibility (perhaps infamy), was the lack of respect for the league in the sports media. XFL games were rarely treated as sports contests, but rather more like WWF-like sensationalized events. With few NFL-quality players, save Tommy Maddox, the league's MVP, and with little thoughtful analysis or even consideration by sports columnists, the XFL never gained the necessary recognition to be regarded as a viable league. The fact that the league was co-owned by NBC made ESPN (which was part of the same corporation as ABC) and Fox Sports Net (owned by Fox TV) disinclined to report on the XFL. Many local TV newscasts and newspapers (even in XFL cities) did not report league scores or show highlights. This led to many football fans treating the XFL as a joke, rather than competition to the NFL.

Former ECW announcer Joey Styles mentioned on the McMahon DVD (which has a short section on the XFL) that if the league had not been as publicly associated with wrestling and the negative stigma that comes with it, the league might have been successful. On the same DVD, Vince McMahon defends the XFL, saying it didn't cost a lot of money for him to try and still thinks it was a good idea, although WWE television nowadays occasionally pokes fun at the failures of the XFL.

WWE announcer Jerry Lawler, who made amends with WWE months after the league folded and remains employed with the company today, believes that the league could have been a success if given more time. He stated in his biography that Vince's novel approach of adding entertainment to the sport would have made it a more appealing alternative to the NFL. However, because the league was immediately compared to the NFL as a direct competitor, he feels that the pressures placed by NBC ruined McMahon's model entirely. He states "I knew after the very first week that it wasn't going to fly. They said don't mention the cheerleaders, don't shoot the cheerleaders. I realized then they were going to try to take on the NFL and that was never going to work. The football wasn't good enough."

The XFL ranked #3 on TV Guide's list of the TV Guide's worst TV shows of all time in July 2002, as well as #2 on ESPN's list of biggest flops in sports, behind Ryan Leaf.

Legacy

Despite its unimpressive showing among the TV audience, the XFL lasted for twelve weeks, more than the eleven weeks played by the three previous professional outdoor leagues combined: the Regional Football League of 1999 played nine weeks, the Spring Football League of 2000 survived just two, while the Professional Spring Football League of 1992 folded before playing a single game. It restored an outdoor professional franchise to Birmingham, Las Vegas and Memphisach of whom had lacked an outdoor pro team since their CFL franchises were shuttered in 1995, but for a single season for the Tennessee Oilers in Memphis before moving to their permanent home in Nashville and becoming the Titansnd to Orlando, which had had no professional outdoor football since the WLAF (later NFL Europa) folded North American operations in 1992. The XFL brought a football franchise to Los Angeles market which has lacked an NFL team for yearsnd demonstrated that a baseball-specific stadium such as San Francisco's Pac Bell Park made a suitable venue for football as well. However, none of these novelties translated into overall commercial success.

The defunct league also popularized "in-game" interviews. The XFL would interview head coaches between plays. Today, NHL players are interviewed between commercial breaks and Major League Baseball has managers and coaches being interviewed. During Fox's Saturday Game of the Week, players often wear microphones for a "sounds of the game" segment.

NBC continued airing professional league football beyond the demise of the XFL. While no football aired during the 2002 season due to the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, NBC struck a deal with the Arena Football League and aired games from that league from 2003 to 2006.

In 2006, NBC returned to coverage of NFL games with NBC Sunday Night Football. The occasional use of the "sky-cam" and sideline interviews are the only features common to both the NFL and XFL coverage. NBC's lead announcer for XFL coverage, Matt Vasgersian, later became an announcer for the NFL on FOX.

XFL team names and logos also appear in movies and television where professional football needs to be dramatized, as licensing for NFL logos may be cost prohibitive.

In an episode of The Simpsons, Homer is wearing an XFL cap and waving a flag with the XFL logo at the beginning, looking forward to the new season, only to have the news broken to him, by Marge, that the XFL has folded. Marge then tells him that the league MVP told her, and that he was now sweeping up nails at the hair salon. In reality, the league's only MVP, Tommy Maddox, would resurrect his once-undistinguished NFL career with the Pittsburgh Steelers and win the NFL Comeback Player of the Year award in 2002 before giving way to Ben Roethlisberger two years later.

The three-point conversion rule, which was introduced (and only used once) by the XFL, also will see new life. The proposed New United States Football League, set to begin play in 2011, plans on adopting a three-point conversion rule similar to that used in the XFL playoffs. In that league, while extra point kicks will still count for one point and a scrimmage play will count for two points, a 10-yard scrimmage play will count for three points.

Notable players

Notable players included league MVP and Los Angeles quarterback Tommy Maddox, who signed with the Pittsburgh Steelers after the XFL folded (Maddox later became the starting quarterback for the Steelers in 2002 and led them to that year's playoffs, as well as continuing to start for them into 2004). Los Angeles used the first pick in the XFL draft to select a former NFL quarterback, Scott Milanovich. Milanovich lost the starting quarterback job to Maddox, who was placed on the Xtreme as one of a handful of players put on each team due to geographic distance between the player's college and the team's hometown. Another of the better-known players was Las Vegas running back Rod Smart, who first gained popularity because the name on the back of his jersey read "He Hate Me." Smart, who was only picked 357th in the draft, later went on to play for the Philadelphia Eagles, Carolina Panthers, and the Oakland Raiders. His Panther teammate Jake Delhomme named his new-born horse "She Hate Me" as a reference to him. Smart played in Super Bowl XXXVIII becoming one of seven XFL players to play in a Super Bowl. Receiver Yo Murphy did as a member of the St. Louis Rams in Super Bowl XXXVI). Tommy Maddox played for a Super Bowl team (with the Pittsburgh Steelers) in Super Bowl XL in Detroit, (although Maddox, by then a third-string quarterback, did not play in the game, which turned out to be his last appearance in uniform before retiring). Lastly, Las Vegas Outlaws DB Kelly Herndon played in Super Bowl XL with the Seattle Seahawks in 2005, where he is remembered for intercepting a pass and returning it a then-record 76 yards. Although he did not play for an NFL team after the XFL's lone season, former Las Vegas Outlaw offensive guard Isaac Davis also had a notable NFL career, playing in 58 games over a six year career. Davis started for the San Diego Chargers in Super Bowl XXIX.

Played in the NFL

John Avery

Jeff Brohm

Andrew Carpenter

Jos Cortz

Isaac Davis

Eric England

Mike Furrey

Steve Gleason

Kelly Herndon

Corey Ivy

Kevin Kaesviharn

Tommy Maddox

Yo Murphy

Rashaan Salaam

Kevin Swayne

Rod Smart

Brad Trout

Pat Barnes

Played in the Super Bowl

Ron Carpenter (Super Bowl XXXIV, St. Louis Rams)

Isaac Davis (Super Bowl XXIX, San Diego Chargers)

Kelly Herndon (Super Bowl XL, Seattle Seahawks)

Corey Ivy (Super Bowl XXXVII, Tampa Bay Buccaneers)

Tommy Maddox (Super Bowl XL, Pittsburgh Steelers)

Yo Murphy (Super Bowl XXXVI, St. Louis Rams)

Bobby Singh (Super Bowl XXXIV, St. Louis Rams)

Rod Smart (Super Bowl XXXVIII, Carolina Panthers)

Won a Super Bowl

Ron Carpenter (Super Bowl XXXIV, St. Louis Rams)

Fred Coleman (Super Bowl XXXVI, New England Patriots)

Corey Ivy (Super Bowl XXXVII, Tampa Bay Buccaneers)

Tommy Maddox (Super Bowl XL, Pittsburgh Steelers)

Bobby Singh (Super Bowl XXXIV, St. Louis Rams)

Won both an XFL Championship and Super Bowl

Ron Carpenter (Super Bowl XXXIV, St. Louis Rams)

Tommy Maddox (Super Bowl XL, Pittsburgh Steelers)

Bobby Singh (Super Bowl XXXIV, St. Louis Rams)

Played in the CFL

Kelvin Anderson

John Avery

Duane Butler

Jeremaine Copeland

Marcus Crandell

Reggie Durden

Eric England

Paul McCallum (Wore the jersey nickname "CFL Reject")

Yo Murphy

Noel Prefontaine

Bobby Singh

Rod Smart

Played in the AFL

Jerry Crafts

Eric England

Mark Grieb

Tommy Maddox

Craig Whelihan

Rod Smart

Kelvin Kinney

Wrestled for WWE

Richard Young (Ricky Ortiz)

Ownership of broadcast rights

XFL games are now part of the WWE Video Library, along with classic highlights of WWE (and predecessors Capitol Wrestling/WWWF/WWF), World Championship Wrestling, Jim Crockett Promotions, the World Bodybuilding Federation, and other past and present subsidiaries of WWE.

No XFL game has been rebroadcast in their entirety in any form, on any channel, since the league folded.

References

^ Vince McMahon Q&A Canoe.ca

^ TIME WARNER AND NBC TO FORM NEW PRO LEAGUE. SportsBusiness.com.

^ http://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/04/sports/sports-business-wwf-alters-script-and-looks-to-football.html

^ List of stadiums courtesy of xflboard.com.

^ Larry Stewart (February 7, 2001). "XFL, NBC Working Out Kinks". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2001/feb/07/sports/sp-22325. Retrieved 2009-03-10. 

^ It's good to be the king...Sometimes. Jerry Lawler. pg. 262.

^ JS Online: Fans love 'He Hate Me'

^ http://www.yomurphy.com/facts.htm

^ Isaac Davis' career summary

Forrest, Brett. Long Bomb: How the XFL Became TV's Biggest Fiasco. Crown Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0609609920.

External links

XFL at the Open Directory Project

v  d  e

World Wrestling Entertainment

History

Black Saturday 1980s boom Monday Night Wars Montreal Screwjob The Attitude Era The Invasion Brand Extension Draft (2002 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010)

Accomplishments

Current champions Royal Rumble Money in the Bank King of the Ring Triple Crown Grand Slam Former championships

Talent

Roster Divas Teams and stables Hall of Fame Alumni (A D I N S)

Programming

Raw NXT Superstars SmackDown Pay-per-views Former programming

Developmental

territories

Deep South Wrestling Florida Championship Wrestling (current) Heartland Wrestling Association International Wrestling Association Memphis Championship Wrestling Ohio Valley Wrestling

Subsidiaries

WWE Video Library WWE Studios WWE Music Group WWE Home Video WWE Books WWE Magazine WWE Niagara Falls

Defunct subsidiaries

World Bodybuilding Federation The World XFL

Purchased assets

World Championship Wrestling (History) Extreme Championship Wrestling (WWE brand) American Wrestling Association World Class Championship Wrestling

v  d  e

XFL

Eastern Division

Birmingham Thunderbolts  Chicago Enforcers  New York/New Jersey Hitmen  Orlando Rage

Western Division

Las Vegas Outlaws  Los Angeles Xtreme  Memphis Maniax  San Francisco Demons

v  d  e

Professional gridiron football leagues in North America

American

football

Major: National Football League

Independent: United Football League

Semi-pro: Central Football League  Midwest Football League   Great Midwest Football League   Colonial Football Alliance  Empire Football League  Florida Football Alliance  Great Lakes Football League  Mid Continental Football League  Mid Ohio Football League  MidStates Football League  Minor League Football Association  New England Football League  North American Football League  Northeastern Football Alliance  Northern Elite Football League   Southern States Football League  Texas United Football League  Oklahoma Metro Football League  United States Football Alliance

Women's: Independent Women's Football League  Women's Football Alliance  Women's Spring Football League

Defunct major: All-America Football Conference  American Football League (1926)  American Football League (19361937)  American Football League (19401941)  American Football League (19601969)  National Football League (1902)  New York Pro Football League  Ohio League  United States Football League  World Football League  XFL

Defunct minor: American Association (19361941)/American Football League (19461950)  American Football League (1934)  American Football League (19381939)  American Football League (1944)  Anthracite League  Atlantic Coast Football League  Continental Football League  Dixie League  Eastern League of Professional Football  Midwest Football League  Pacific Coast Professional Football League  Regional Football League  Spring Football League  United Football League (1961)  World League of American Football

Defunct Semi-pro: Hawaii Football League  Seaboard Football League  Virginia-Carolina Football League

Defunct women's: National Women's Football Association  Women's Football League  Women's Professional Football League

Folded or merged before any games were played: All-American Football League (1998)  All American Football League (2008)  Asia Pacific Football League  International Football Federation   Professional Spring Football League

Canadian

football

Major: Canadian Football League

Evolved from amateur to professional leagues: Interprovincial Rugby Football Union  Western Interprovincial Football Union

Arena/

indoor football

National: Arena Football League  American Indoor Football Association  Indoor Football League  

Regional: Continental Indoor Football League  Southern Indoor Football League

Women's: Lingerie Football League

Semi-pro: American Professional Football League  Independent Indoor Football Alliance

Defunct: Arena Football League (19872008)  af2  Eastern Indoor Football League  Indoor Football League (19992000)  Indoor Professional Football League  Intense Football League  National Indoor Football League  Professional Indoor Football League  United Indoor Football  World Indoor Football League (2007)

Folded or merged before any games were played: North American Indoor Football League (2005)  North American Indoor Football League (2007)  World Indoor Football League (1988)  Xtreme Football League

Categories: Organizations established in 2001 | Organizations disestablished in 2001 | 2001 in American football | American football media | Defunct American football leagues | Joint ventures | NBC network shows | NBC Sports | Spike TV network shows | UPN network shows | World Wrestling Entertainment | Television series by World Wrestling Entertainment | XFL | 2001 American television series debuts | 2001 American television series endings | Sports entertainmentHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from July 2007 | All articles needing additional references | Articles needing additional references from February 2009