Mining

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History

Prehistoric mining

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel. portable power inverter

Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later, metals found on or close to the Earth's surface. These were used to manufacture early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France and southern England were used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. cobra power inverter

The oldest known mine on archaeological record is the "Lion Cave" in Swaziland. At this site, which by radiocarbon dating proves the mine to be about 43,000 years old, paleolithic humans mined mineral hematite, which contained iron and was ground to produce the red pigment ochre. Mines of a similar age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools. itx power supply

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi. At first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2,613 and 2,494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghara in order "to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself." Quarries for turquoise and copper were also found at "Wadi Hamamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites" on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, and the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt, and are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus. He mentions that fire-setting was one method used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of earliest known maps. They crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust.

Ancient Greece and Rome

Agricola, author of De Re Metallica

Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines

Mining in Europe has a very long history, examples including the silver mines of Laurium, which helped support the Greek city state of Athens. However, it is the Romans who developed large scale mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts. The water was used for a variety of purposes, including using it to remove overburden and rock debris, called hydraulic mining, as well as washing comminuted or crushed ores, and driving simple machinery. They used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially a now obsolete form of mining known as hushing. It involved building numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead where it was stored in large reservoirs and tanks. When a full tank was opened, the wave of water sluiced away the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold veins. The rock was then attacked by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water. The thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed, aided by further streams of water from the overhead tanks. They used similar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the Pennines. The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spain in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts were built to tap local rivers and to sluice the deposits. Spain was one of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the Roman Empire were exploited. They used reverse overshot water-wheels for dewatering their deep mines such as those at Rio Tinto. In Great Britain the natives had mined minerals for millennia , but when the Romans came, the scale of the operations changed dramatically. The Romans needed what Britain possessed, especially gold, silver, tin and lead. Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining. They followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins, and drove adits through barren rock to drain the stopes. The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when fire-setting was used. At other parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the mines using several kinds of machine, especially reverse overshot water-wheels. These were used extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about 80 feet (24 m). They were worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales.

Medieval Europe

Mining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in medieval Europe. The mining industry in the early Middle Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copper, bronze and iron. Other precious metals were also used mainly for gilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extracted from shallow depths, rather than though the digging of deep mine shafts. Around approximately the 14th century, the demand for weapons, armor, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the demand for iron. Medieval knights for example were often laden with up to 100 pounds of plate or chain link armor in addition to swords, lances and other weapons. The overwhelming dependency on iron for military purposes helped to spur increased iron production and extraction processes.

These new military applications coincided with a population explosion throughout Europe in the 11th-14th centuries which enriched the demand for precious metals in order to fill a currency shortage. The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when the mines had all reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be pumped dry with the available technology. Although the increased use of bank notes and the use of credit during this period did decrease the dependence and value of precious metals, these forms of currency still remained vital to the story of medieval mining. Use of water power in the form of water mills was extensive; they were employed in crushing ore, raising ore from shafts and ventilating galleries by powering giant bellows. Black powder was first used in mining in Selmecbnya, Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Bansk tiavnica,Slovakia) in 1627. Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins, which was much faster than fire-setting, in which rock was exposed to heat and then doused with cold water. Black powder allowed the mining of previously impenetrable metals and ores. In 1762, the world's first mining academy was established in the same town. Prior to this invention much mining was accomplished through firesetting. This method began by exposing the vein to prolonged heat from a fire.

The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such as the iron plowshare, in addition to the growing usage of metal in architecture and building structure were also driving forces in the tremendous growth of the iron industry during this period. Inventions like the arrastra were often used by the Spanish to pulverize ore after being mined. This device employed animal power and utilized mechanical principles similar to that of the ancient Middle Eastern technology of grain threshing.

Much of our knowledge of Medieval mining techniques comes from books such as Biringuccio Pirotechnia and probably most importantly from Georg Agricola De Re Metallica (1556). These books detail many different mining methods used in German and Saxon mines. One of the prime issues dealt with by medieval miners (and one which Agricola explains in detail) was the removal of water from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper to access new veins, flooding became a very real obstacle. As a result the mining industry became dramatically more efficient and prosperous as the use of various mechanical and animal driven pump systems were implemented.

North and South America

Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S. in 1905.

In North America there are ancient, prehistoric copper mines along Lake Superior. "Indians availed themselves of this copper starting at least 5000 years ago," and copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade network have been discovered. In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded. While the early French explorers that encountered the sites made no use of the metals due to the difficulties in transporting it, the copper was eventually traded throughout the continent along major river routes. In Manitoba, Canada, there also are ancient quartz mines near Waddy Lake and surrounding regions.

In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons" mostly from mines in Central and South America. Turquoise dated at 700 A.D. was mined in pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District in New Mexico, estimates are that "about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt Chalchihuitl using stone tools before 1700."

Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19th century, and the General Mining Act of 1872 was passed to encourage mining of federal lands. As with the California Gold Rush in the mid 1800s, mining for minerals and precious metals, along with ranching, was a driving factor in the Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast. With the exploration of the West, mining camps were established and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation;" Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that preceded them. Aided by railroads, many traveled West for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns.

Mining methods and procedures

Steps of mine development

Simplified world mining map (click to enlarge)

Another simplified world mining map (click to enlarge)

The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through extraction of minerals and finally to returning the land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps. The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out through prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads to a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the size and grade of the deposit. This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. The next step is to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, technical and financial risks and robustness of the project. This is when the mining company makes the decision to develop the mine or to walk away from the project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements and an analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create access to the ore body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long as the company operating the mine finds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine can produce profitably is recovered, reclamation begins to make the land used by the mine suitable for future use.

Mining techniques

A minecart toilet, used in Bisbee, Arizona.

Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface (underground) mining. Surface mining is much more common, and produces, for example, 85% of minerals (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States, including 98% of metallic ores. Targets are divided into two general categories of materials: placer deposits, consisting of valuable minerals contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated materials; and lode deposits, where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both surface and underground methods.

Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes. Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals begins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several, mechanical and chemical techniques.

Some mining, including much of the uranium mining and mining for rare earth elements being done today, is done by less-common methods, such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging neither at the surface nor underground. The extraction of target minerals by this teqhnique requires that they be soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate and uranium oxide which dissolve in water.

Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surface vegetation, dirt, and if necessary, layers of bedrock in order to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface mining include; Open-pit mining which consists of recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground, quarrying or gathering building materials from an open pit mine, strip mining which consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal ore/seams underneath, and Mountaintop removal, commonly associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth. Most (but not all) placer deposits, because of their shallowly-buried nature, are mined by surface methods. Landfill mining finally are sites where landfills are excavated and processed.

Open-pit mine near Garzweiler, Germany

Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of access shafts used, the extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit. Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts and shaft mining consists of vertical access shafts. Other methods include shrinkage stope mining which is mining upward creating a sloping underground room, long wall mining which is grinding a long ore surface underground and room and pillar which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to retreat mining which is removing the pillars which support rooms, allowing the room to cave in, loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include Hard rock mining which is mining of hard materials, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving and block caving

Machinery

Gold-bearing gravels are shoveled into a trommel at the Blue Ribbon placer mine, Alaska.

Heavy machinery is needed in mining for exploration and development, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to process the ore and for reclamation efforts after the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In the case of placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium, is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or trommel which frees the desired minerals from the waste gravel. The minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs. Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes and obtain samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into and out of mines, as well as moving rock and ore out, and machinery in and out of underground mines. Huge trucks, shovels and cranes are employed in surface mining to move large quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plants can utilize large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired compounds and metals from the ore.

Extractive metallurgy

Main article: extractive metallurgy

The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means. Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their gangue (waste material). Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides, the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form. This can be accomplished through chemical means such as smelting or through electrolytic reduction, as in the case of aluminum. Geometallurgy combines the geologic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining.

Environmental effects

Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining.

Main article: Environmental issues with mining

Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to increase the available room for the storage of the created debris and soil. Besides creating environmental damage, the contamination resulting from leakage of chemicals also affect the health of the local population. Mining companies in many countries may be required to follow environmental and rehabilitation codes; however, in many areas regulation is not enforced, and mining companies have encouraged self-policing. In 1992 a Draft Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD) together with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued successfully for self-regulation instead. This was followed up by the Global Mining Initiative which created of the International Council on Mining and Metals, an industry organization which works to self-regulate the mining industry internationally. The mining industry has provided funding to various nonprofit groups, which have been subsequently less inclined to fight for the rights of indigenous people.

Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings, which are perhaps their largest environmental burden. For example, 99 tonnes of waste are generated per tonne of copper, with even higher ratios in gold mining. These tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as a slurry, are most commonly dumped into ponds made from naturally-existing valleys. These ponds are secured by impoundments (dams or embankment dams). In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major failures and 35 minor failures occurred; for example, in the Marcopper mining disaster at least 2 million tons of tailings were released into a local river. Subaqueous tailings disposal is another option. The mining industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the risks of tailings ponds; although the practice is illegal in the United States and Canada, it is used in the developing world.

Certification of mines with good practices occurs through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certifies an 'auditable environmental management system'; this certification involves short inspections, although it has been accused of lacking rigor.:183-4 Certification is also available through Ceres' Global Reporting Initiative, but these reports are voluntary and unverified. Miscellaneous other certification programs exist for various projects, typically through nonprofit groups.:185-6

Regulations and World Bank relationship

The World Bank has been involved in mining since 1955, mainly through grants from its International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, with the Bank's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency offering political risk insurance. Between 1955 and 1990 it provided about $2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadly categorized as reform and rehabilitation, greenfield mine construction, mineral processing, technical assistance, and engineering. These projects have been criticized, particularly the Ferro Carajas project of Brazil, began in 1981. The bank established mining codes intended to increase foreign investment, in 1988 solicited feedback from 45 mining companies on how to increase their involvement.:20

In 1992 the bank began to push for privatization of government-owned mining companies with a new set of codes, beginning with its report The Strategy for African Mining. In 1997, Latin America's largest miner Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized. These and other movements such as the Philippines 1995 Mining Act led the World Bank to publish a third report (Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reform in Member Countries) which endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and attention to the locals. The codes based on this report are influential in the legislation of developing nations. The new codes are intended to encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom duties, reduced income taxes, and related measures.:22 The results of these codes were analyzed by a group from the University of Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote foreign investment but "fall very short of permitting sustainable development". The observed negative effect of natural resources on economic development is known as the resource curse.

Mining industry

This section requires expansion.

While exploration and mining can sometimes be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small business, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational, mostly publicly-listed companies. See Mining Companies for a list. However, what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new resources, the other specializing in mining those resources. The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and small mineral resource companies dependent on public investment. The mining sector is typically large and multi-national companies sustained by mineral production from their mining operations. In addition to these two sectors, various other industries such as equipment manufacture, environmental testing and metallurgy analysis also rely on and support the mining industry throughout the world.

Mining operations can be grouped into five major categories in terms of their respective resources. These are, oil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and support activities for mining. Out of all these categories oil and gas extraction remains one of the largest in terms of its global economic importance. Prospecting potential mining sites, a vital area of concern for the mining industry is now done using sophisticated new technologies such as seismic prospecting and remote-sensing satellites.

Corporate classifications

Mining companies can be classified based on their size and financial capabilities:

Major companies are considered to have an adjusted annual mining-related revenue of more than US$500 million, with the financial capability to develop a major mine on its own.

Intermediate companies have at least $50 million in annual revenue but less than $500 million.

Junior companies rely on equity financing as their principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are mainly pure exploration companies, but may also produce minimally, and do not have a revenue of US$50 million.

Safety

Danger sign at an old Arizona mine.

Abandoned mine entrance in Yorkshire, England

Safety has long been a controversial issue in the mining business especially with sub-surface mining. While mining today is substantially safer than it was in the previous decades, mining accidents are often very high profile, such as the Quecreek Mine Rescue saving 9 trapped Pennsylvania coal miners in 2002. Mining ventilation is a significant safety concern for many miners. Poor ventilation of the mines causes exposure to harmful gases, heat and dust inside sub-surface mines. These can cause harmful physiological effects, including death. The concentration of methane and other airborne contaminants underground can generally be controlled by dilution (ventilation), capture before entering the host air stream (methane drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings). Ignited methane gas is a common source of explosions in coal mines, or, the more violent coal dust explosions. Gases in mines can also poison the workers or displace the oxygen in the mine, causing asphixiation. For this reason, the MHSA requires that workers have gas detection equipment in groups of miners. It must be able to detect common gases, such as CO, O2, H2S, and % Lower Explosive Limit. Additionally, further regulation is being requested for more gas detection as newer technology such as nanotechnology is introduced. High temperatures and humidity may result in heat-related illnesses, including heat stroke which can be fatal. Dusts can cause lung problems, including silicosis, asbestosis and pneumoconiosis (also known as miners lung or black lung disease). A ventilation system is set up to force a stream of air through the working areas of the mine. The air circulation necessary for the effective ventilation of a mine is generated by one or more large mine fans, usually located above ground. Air flows in one direction only, making circuits through the mine such that each main work area constantly receives a supply of fresh air.

Since mining entails removing dirt and rock from its natural location creating large empty pits, rooms and tunnels, cave-ins are a major concern within mines. Modern techniques for timbering and bracing walls and ceilings within sub-surface mines have reduced the number of fatalities due to cave-ins, but accidents still occur.[citation needed] The presence of heavy equipment in confined spaces also poses a risk to miners, and despite modern improvements to safety practices, mining remains dangerous throughout the world.

Abandoned mines

Abandoned mine in Nevada.

There are upwards of 560,000 abandoned mines on public and privately owned lands in the United States alone. Abandoned mines pose a threat to anyone who may attempt to explore them without proper knowledge and safety training. Old mines are often dangerous and can contain deadly gases. Standing water in mines from seepage or infiltration poses a significant hazard as the water can hide deep pits and trap gases below the water. Additionally, since weather may have eroded the earth and rock surrounding it, the entrance to an old mine in particular can be very dangerous. Old mine workings, caves, etc. are commonly hazardous simply due to the lack of oxygen in the air, a condition in mines known as blackdamp.

Hearing loss

Miners utilize equipment strong enough to break through extremely hard layers of the Earth's crust. This equipment, combined with the closed workspace that underground miners work in, can cause hearing loss. For example, a roof bolter (commonly used by mine roof bolter operators) can reach sound power levels of up to 115 dB. Combined with the reverberant effects of underground mines, a miner without proper hearing protection is not only at a high risk for hearing loss, but is also going against OSHA standards.

Records

As of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is TauTona in Carletonville, South Africa at 3.9 kilometers, replacing Savuka Mine in the North West Province of South Africa at 3,774 meters. East Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briefly held the record at 3,585 meters, and the first mine declared the deepest in the world was also TauTona when it was at 3,581 meters. The deepest mine in Europe is Pyhsalmi Mine in Pyhjrvi, Finland at 1,444 meters. The second deepest mine in Europe is Boulby Mine England at 1,400 meters (shaft depth 1,100 meters).

The deepest open pit mine in the world is Bingham Canyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United States at over 1,200 meters. The largest and second deepest open pit copper mine in the world is Chuquicamata in Chuquicamata, Chile at 900 meters, 940,600 tons of copper and 17,700 tons of molybdenum produced annually.[citation needed]

The deepest open pit mine with respect to sea level is Tagebau Hambach in Germany, the ground of the pit is 293 meters below sea level.

The largest underground mine: El Teniente, in Rancagua, Chile, 2,400 kilometers of underground drifts, 418,000 tons of copper yearly. The deepest borehole in the world is Kola Superdeep Borehole at 12,262 meters. This, however, is not a matter of mining but rather related to scientific drilling.

See also

Outline of mining

Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe

Mining in Cornwall and Devon

Landfill mining

List of uranium mines

Canadian Mining Hall of Fame

National Mining Hall of Fame (USA)

Mineral industry

Spoil tip

References

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^ The Independent, 20 Jan. 2007: The end of a Celtic tradition: the last gold miner in Wales

^ The Romans in Britain: mining

^ A culture of Improvement. Robert Friedel. MIT Press. 2007. Pg.81

^ Medieval Science and Technology: Original Essays.Medieval Iron and Steel Simplified Hall, Bert http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/culture/scitech/iron_steel.html

^ http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/115CH7.html

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^ The use of Firesetting in the Granite Quarries of South India Paul T. Craddock The Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society, Vol. 13 Number 1. 1996

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^ http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf27.html

^ http://www.kazatomprom.kz/cgi-bin/index.cgi?p27&version=en

^ Landfill Mining Landfill Mining, Preserving Resources through Integrated Sustainable Management of Waste, Technical Brief from the World Resource Foundation

^ Logging of forests and debris dumping

^ Larmer, Brook (2009-01). "The Real Price of Gold". National Geographic. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/01/gold/larmer-text/12. 

^ a b c d e f Moody R. (2007). Rocks and Hard Places. Zed Books.

^ Abrahams D. (2005). Regulations for Corporations: A historical account of TNC regulation, p. 6. UNRISD.

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^ a b c US EPA. (1994). Technical Report: Design and Evaluation of Tailings Dams.

^ TE Martin, MP Davies. (2000). Trends in the stewardship of tailings dams.

^ Coumans C. (2002). Mining Problem with Waste. MiningWatch Canada.

^ For an overview of the Bank and mining, see Mining, Sustainability and Risk:World Bank Group Experiences.

^ See the 1995 World Development 23(3) pp. 385-400.

^ GRAMA. (2003). The Challenges of Development, Mining Codes in Africa And Corporate Responsibility. In: International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy: Trends and Prospects. Summarized in the African Mining Codes Questioned.

^ United States Bureau of Labor http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs004.htm#nature

^ "Metals Economics Group World Exploration Trends Report". Metals Economics Group Inc.. http://www.metalseconomics.com/pdf/PDAC%202009%20World%20Exploration%20Trends.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-05. 

^ a b "NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Ventilation". United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/topics/topicpage30.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-29. 

^ Kertes, N., (March, 1996). US abandoned mine count still a mystery - General Accounting Office report. American Metal Market, Retrieved August 27, 2007,

^ People, Land, and Water (March, 2007). KEEP OUT! Old Mines Are Dangerous. Office of Surface Mining: U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved Aug, 27, 2007,

^ a b c Peterson, J.S.; P.G. Kovalchik, R.J. Matetic (2006). "Sound power level study of a roof bolter" (PDF). Trans Soc Min Metal Explor (320): 1717. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/pubs/pdfs/splso.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-16. 

^ Franks, John R., ed. (1996), "Appendix A: OSHA Noise Standard Compliance Checklist", Preventing Occupational Hearing Loss: A Practical Guide, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, pp. 60, http://origin.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/96-110/pdfs/96-110.pdf 

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^ Naidoo, Brindaveni (2006-12-15). "TauTona to take eepest mine accolade". Creamer Media's Mining Weekly Online. http://www.miningweekly.co.za/article.php?a_id=98516. Retrieved 2007-07-19. 

Further reading

Ali, Saleem H. (2003) Mining, the Environment and Indigenous Development Conflicts. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Ali, Saleem H. (2009) Treasures of the Earth: need, greed and a sustainable future. New Haven and London: Yale University Press

Even-Zohar, Chaim (2007) From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry (ISBN 0953733610)

Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria (in PDF format)

Garrett, Dennis Alaska Placer Mining

Jayanta, Bhattacharya (2003) Principles of Mine Planning. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. 454 pages

Morrison, Tom (1992) Hardrock Gold: a miner's tale. ISBN 0-8061-2442-3

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Ceremonial use of lights

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Overview

Hindus putting lit candles on the river Ganges.

The ceremonial use of lights in the Christian Church probably has a double origin: in a very non-natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain pagan and Jewish rites and customs of which the symbolic meaning was Christianized. pocket thermometer

Light is everywhere the symbol of joy and of life-giving power, as darkness is of death and destruction. Fire, the most mysterious and impressive of the elements, the giver of light and of all the good things of life, is a thing sacred and adorable in primitive religions, and fire-worship still has its place in two at least of the great religions of the world. The Parsis adore fire as the visible expression of Ahura Mazda, the eternal principle of light and righteousness; the Brahmans worship it as divine and omniscient. The Hindu festival of Diwali (Diyawali, from diya, light), when temples and houses are illuminated with countless lamps, is held every November to celebrate Lakhshmi, the goddess of prosperity. ear digital thermometer

In the ritual of the Jewish temple fire and light played a conspicuous part. In the Holy of Holies was a cloud of light (shekinali), symbolical of the presence of Yahweh, and before it stood the candlestick with six branches, on each of which and on the central stem was a lamp eternally burning; while in the forecourt was an altar on which the sacred fire was never allowed to go out. Similarly the Jewish synagogues have each their eternal lamp. basal digital thermometer

Ancient Greece and Rome

Terracotta oil lamp representing Serapis (British Museum).

The Greeks and Romans, too, had their sacred fire and their ceremonial lights. In Greece the Lam padedromia or Lam padephoria (torch-race) had its origin in Greek ceremonies, connected with the relighting of the sacred fire. Pausanias mentions the golden lamp made by Callimachus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of Athena Polias on the Acropolis, and tells of a statue of Hermes Agoraios, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, before which lamps were lighted. Among the Romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of the cult of the domestic tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were garlanded and lamps lighted. In the Cult of Isis lamps were lighted by day. In the ordinary temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of Apollo Palatinus at Rome, originally taken by Alexander from Thebes, which was in the form of a tree from the branches of which lights hung like fruit. The lamps in the pagan temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings to the gods. Torches and lamps were also carried in religious processions.

Lamps for the dead

The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next world; the lamps were for the most part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it having been observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in Egypt or Greece. In Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination of Rome.

Early Christian uses

Main article: Early Christian Lamps

In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the divine presence. Christ is the true Light, and at his transfiguration the fashion Christian of his countenance was altered, and his raiment was white and glistering; when the Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles, there appeared unto them cloven tongues of fire, and it sat upon each of them; at the conversion of St Paul there shined round him a great light from heaven; while the glorified Christ is represented as standing in the midst of seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire. Christians are children of Light at perpetual war with the powers of darkness.

There is no evidence of any ceremonial use of lights in Christian worship during its first two centuries. It is recorded, indeed, that on the occasion of St. Paul's preaching at Alexandria in Troas there were many lights in the upper chamber; but this was at night. And the most that can be hazarded is that a specially large number were lighted as a festive illumination, as in modern Church festivals. As to a purely ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. A single sentence of Tertullian sufficiently illuminates Christian practice during the 2nd century. On days of rejoicing, he says, we do not shade our door-posts with laurels nor encroach upon the day-light with lamp laurels (die lacto non laurels pastes obumbramus nec lucernis diem infringimus). Lactantius, writing early in the 4th century, is even more sarcastic in his references to the heathen practice. They kindle lights, he says, as though to one who is in darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and candles to the Author and Giver of all light? . This is primarily an attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily exclude their ceremonial use in other ways. There is, indeed, evidence that they were so used before Lactantius wrote. The 34th canon of the Synod of Elvira (305), which was contemporary with him, forbade candles to be lighted in cemeteries during the daytime, which points to an established custom as well as to an objection to it; and in the Roman catacombs lamps have been found of the 2nd and 3rd centuries which seem to have.

Lucerna been ceremonial or symbolical. Again, according to the Acta of St Cyprian (d. 258), his body was borne to the grave praelucentibus cereis, and Prudentius, in his hymn on the 2nd and martyrdom of St Lawrence, says that in the time of St Laurentius, i.e. the middle of the 3rd century, candles stood in the churches of Rome on golden candelabra. The gift, mentioned by Anastasius, made by Constantine to the Vatican basilica, of a pharum of gold, garnished with 500 dolphins each holding a lamp, to burn before St Peters tomb, points also to a custom well established before Christianity became the state religion.

Whatever previous custom may have been and for the earliest ages it is difficult to determine absolutely because the Christians held their services at night. By the close of the 4th century the ceremonial use of lights had become firmly and universally established in the Church. This is clear, to pass by much other evidence, from the controversy of St Jerome with Vigilantius.

Vigilantius, a presbyter of Barcelona, still occupied the position of Tertullian and Lactantius in this matter. We see, he wrote, a rite peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on pretext of religion, and, while the sun is still shining, a mass of wax tapers lighted. ... A great honor to the blessed martyrs, whom they think to illustrate with contemptible little candles (de pilissimis cereolis). Jerome, the most influential theologian of the day, took up the cudgels against Vigilantius, who, in spite of his fatherly admonition, had dared again to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy stink against the relics of the holy martyrs. If candles are lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry? In his treatise contra Vigilantium he answers the question with much common sense. There can be no harm if ignorant and simple people or religious women, light candles in honor of the martyrs. We are not born, but reborn, Christians, and that which when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done for the martyrs. As in the case of the woman with the precious box of ointment, it is not the gift that merits reward, but the faith that inspires it. As for lights in the churches, he adds that in all the churches of the East, whenever the gospel is to be read, lights are lit, though the sun be rising (jam sole rutilante), not in order to disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (ad signum ketitiae demonstrandum). Taken in connection with a statement which almost immediately precedes this Cereos autem non clara luce accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras hoc solatio temperemus , this seems to point to the fact that the ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already established, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the development of liturgical vestments, i.e. the lights which had been necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the hours of service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical meaning.

Already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions of the Church. Paulinus, bishop of Nola (d. 431), describes the altar at the eucharist as crowned with crowded lights, and even mentions the eternal lamp. For their use at baptisms we have, among much other evidence, that of Zeno of Verona for the West, and that of Gregory of Nazianzus for the East. Their use at funerals is illustrated by Eusebius's description of the burial of Constantine, and Jerome's account of that of St Paula. At ordinations they were used, as is shown by the 6th canon of the Council of Carthage (398), which decrees that the acolyte is to hand to the newly ordained deacon ceroferarium cum cereo. This symbolism was not pagan, i.e. the lamps were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the dead; in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the galleries and the arcosolia, nor can they have been votive in the sense popularized later. Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis. Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum. Sal, ignis et oleum.. Cum alii Pontifices lampads cereosque proferrent, alii choras psallentium ducerent..

Middle Ages

As to the blessing of candles, according to the Liber pontificalis Pope Zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed, and the Gallican and Mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony. The Feast of the Purification of the Virgin, known as Candlemas, because on this day the candles for the whole year are blessed, was established according to some authorities by Pope Gelasius I about 492. As to the question of altar lights, however, it must be borne in mind that these were not placed upon the altar, or on a retable behind it, until the 12th century. These were originally the candles carried by the deacons, according to the Ordo Romanus (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven in number, which were set down, either on the steps of the altar, or, later, behind it. In certain of the Eastern Churches to this day, there are no lights on the high altar; the lighted candles stand on a small altar beside it, and at various parts of the service are carried by the lectors or acolytes before the officiating priest or deacon. The crowd of lights described by Paulinus as crowning the altar were either grouped round it or suspended in front of it; they are represented by the sanctuary lamps of the Latin Church and by the crown of lights suspended in front of the altar in. the Greek.

To trace the gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use of ceremonial lights in the Church, until its full development and systematization in the Middle Ages, would be impossible here. It must suffice to note a few stages in development of the process. The burning of lights before the tombs of martyrs led naturally to their being burned also before relics and lastly before images and pictures. This latter practice, hotly denounced as idolatry during the iconoclastic controversy, was finally established as orthodox by the Second General Council of Nicaea (787), which restored the worship of images. A later development, however, by which certain lights themselves came to be regarded as objects of worship and to have other lights burned before them, was condemned as idolatrous by the synod of Noyon in 1344. The passion for symbolism extracted ever new meanings out of the candles and their use. Early in the 6th century Magnus Felix Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, pointed out the threefold elements of a waxcandle (Opusc. ix. and x.), each of which would make it an offering acceptable to God; the rush-wick is the product of pure water, the wax is the offspring of virgin, bees in the flame is sent from heaven.12 Clearly, wax was a symbol of the Blessed Virgin and the holy humanity of Christ. The later Middle Ages developed the idea. Durandus, in his Rationale, interprets the wax as the body of Christ, the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine nature; and the consuming candle as symbolizing his passion and death.

This may be the Paschal Candle only. In some codices the text runs: Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum Paschalem. In the three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesnes edition of the Liber pontificalis (I~86I892) the word cera is, however, alone used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. The passage runs: Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur, &c. Per parrochias here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons, not to the candles.

See also the Peregrinoiio Sylviae (386), 86, &c., for the use of lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th canon of the council of Toledo (671):De benedicendo cereo et lucerna in privilegiis Paschae. This canon states that candles and lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been made why we do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be done to celebrate the mystery of Christs resurrection. See Isidore of Seville, Conc., in Migne, Pat, tat. lxxxiv. 369.

Eastern Christian usage

Church candle

Tomb of Jesus, inside the Edicule. Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem. This is where the Holy Fire manifests itself.

Candlestand in an Eastern Orthodox church.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, there is a large amount of ceremonial use of light.

The most important usage is the reception of the Holy Fire at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem on the afternoon of Holy Saturday. This flame is often taken by the faithful to locations all over the world.

The temple

When a new temple (church building) is consecrated the bishop kindles a flame in the sanctuary which traditionally should burn perpetually from that time forward. This sanctuary lamp is usually an oil lamp located either on or above the Holy Table (altar). In addition, in the Eastern Orthodox Church there must be candles on the Holy Table during the celebration of the Divine Liturgy. In some places this takes the form of a pair of white candles, in others it may be a pair of five-branch candlesticks. There is also traditionally a seven-branch candlestick on or behind the Holy Table, recalling the one mandated in the Old Testament Tabernacle and the Temple in Jerusalem.

Around the temple, there are a number of oil lamps burning in front of the icons, especially on the iconostasis. Additionally, the faithful will offer beeswax candles in candle stands in front of important icons. The faithful offer candles as they pray for both the living and the departed. It is customary during funerals and memorial services for everyone to stand holding lit candles. Often everyone will either extinguish their candles or put them in a candle stand at a certain point near the end of the memorial service to indicate that at some point, everyone will have to surrender their soul to God.

Special moments

The reading from the Gospel Book must always be accompanied by lighted candles, as a sign that Christ is the Light which enlightens all (John 1:4-5). When the priest and deacon cense the temple, the deacon will walk with a lighted candle. During processionss, and in some places during the liturgical entrances, either candles or lanterns are carried by altar servers. On certain feast days, the clergy, and sometimes all of the faithful, will stand holding candles for certain solemn moments during the service. This is especially so during Holy Week during the reading of the 12 Passion Gospels on Great Friday, and the Lamentations around the epitaphios on Great Saturday.

Certain moments during the All Night Vigil will be accentuated by the lighting or extinguishing of lamps or candles. The Polyeleos is an important moment in the service when all of the lamps and candles in the church should be illuminated.

Whenever the bishop celebrates the divine services, he will bless with a pair of candlesticks known as dikirion and trikirion, holding two and three canldes, respectively.

In the home

The faithful will often keep a lamp burning perpetually in their icon corner. In the Russian Orthodox Church, it is customary to try to preserve the flame from the service of the 12 Passion Gospels and bring it home to bless their house: there is a custom of using the flame from this candle to mark a cross on the lintel of one's doorway before entering after the service, and of then using the flame to re-kindle the lamp in the icon corner.

Paschal Vigil and Bright Week

The congregation lighting their candles from the new flame which the priest has retrieved from the altar (St. George Greek Orthodox Church, in Adelaide, Australia).

During the Paschal Vigil, after the Midnight Office, all of the candles and lamps in the temple are extinguished, with the exception of the sanctuary lamp behind the iconostasis, and all wait in silence and darkness. (In Orthodox churches, when possible, the Holy Fire arrives from the Holy Sepulchre during Holy Saturday afternoon and it is used to light anew the flame in the sanctuary lamp.) At the stroke of midnight, the priest censes around the Holy Table, and lights his candle from the sanctuary lamp. Then the Holy Doors are opened and all the people light their candles from the priest's candle. Then, all the clergy and the people exit the church and go in procession three times around it holding lighted candles and singing a hymn of the resurrection.

During the Paschal Vigil, and throughout Bright Week, the priest will hold a special paschal candle--in the Greek tradition a single candle, in the Slavic tradition a tripple candlestick--at the beginning of the service, whenever he censes, and at other special moments during the service. In the Slavic tradition, the deacon also carries a special paschal candle which he holds at the beginning, whenever he censes, and whenever he chants an ektenia (litany).

Oriental Orthodox

In the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, it is customary to light bonfires on the Feast of Timkat (Epiphany).

Roman Catholic usage in the early twentieth century

In the Latin Church or Roman Catholic Church, the use of ceremonial lights falls under three heads. (1) They may be symbolical of the light of Gods presence, of Christ as Light Roman of Light, or of the children of Light in conflict with Catholic the powers of darkness; they may even be no more than expressions of joy on the occasion of great festivals. (2) They may be votive, i.e. offered as an act of worship (latria) to God. (3) They are, in virtue of their benediction by the Church, sacramental id, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls and bodies, and for the confusion of the powers of darkness. With one or more of these implications, they are employed in all the public functions of the Church. At the consecration of a church twelve lights are placed round the walls at the twelve spots Dedication where these are anointed by the bishop with holy oil, of a and on every anniversary these are relighted; at the church, dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and censed at each place where the table is anointed (Pontificale Rom. p. ii. De ecci. dedicat. seu consecrat.).

Mass

Candles burning in Cracow after the death of Pope John Paul II.

At every liturgical service, and especially at Mass and at choir services, there must be at least two lighted tapers on the altar, as symbols of the presence at Mass of God and tributes of adoration. For the Mass the rule is that there are six lights at High Mass, four at missa cantata, and two at private masses. At a Pontifical High Mass (i.e. when the bishop celebrates) the lights are seven, because seven golden candlesticks surround the risen Saviour, the chief bishop of the Church (see Rev. i. 12). At most pontifical functions, moreover, the bishop as the representative of Christ is preceded by an acolyte with a burning candle (bugia) on a candlestick. The Ceremoniale Episco, porum (i. 12) further orders that a burning lamp is to hang at all times before each altar, three in front of the high altar, and five before the reserved Sacrament, as symbols of the eternal Presence. In practice, however, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before the tabernacle in which the Host is reserved. The special symbol of the real presence of Christ is the Sanctus candle, which is lighted at the moment of consecration and kept burning until the communion. The same symbolism is intended by the lighted tapers which must accompany the Host whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and dying.

As symbols of light and joy, a candle is held on each side of the deacon when reading the Gospel at Mass; and the same symbolism underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number varying with the importance of the occasion. As to the number of these latter no rule is laid down. They differ from liturgical lights in that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps fed with pure olive oil (except by special dispensation under Certain circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the celebration may be of any material; the only exception being, that in the decoration of the altar, gas-lights are forbidden.

In general the ceremonial use of lights in the Roman Catholic Church is conceived as a dramatic representation in fire of the life of Christ and of the whole scheme of salvation. On Easter Eve the new fire, symbol of the light of the newly risen Christ, is produced, and from this are kindled all the lights used throughout the Christian year until, in the gathering darkness (tenebrae) of the Passion, they are gradually extinguished. This quenching of the light of the world is symbolized at the service of Tenebrae in Holy Week by the placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen lighted tapers arranged pyramidally, the rest of the church being in darkness. The penitential psalms are sung, and at the end of each a candle is extinguished. When only the central one is left it is taken down and carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the nocturnal darkness, so our hearts are illumined by invisible fire, &c. (Missale Rom.). In the form for the blessing of candles extra diem Purificationis B. Mariae Virg. the virtue of the consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out: that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with all therr ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God (Rituale Rom.)

Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which a small taper is forced to the top by a spring (Cong. Rit., tIth May I&78).

Easter

On Easter Eve new fire is made with a flint and steel, and blessed; from this three candles are lighted, the lumen Christi, and from these again the Paschal Candle. This is the symbol of the risen and victorious Christ, and burns at every solemn service until Ascension Day, when it is extinguished and removed after the reading of the Gospel at High Mass. This, of course, symbolizes the Ascension; but meanwhile the other lamps in the church have received their light from the Paschal Candle, and so symbolize throughout the year the continued presence of the light of Christ.

Baptism

At the consecration of the baptismal water the burning Paschal Candle is dipped into the font so that the power of the Holy Ghost may descend into it and make it an effective instrument of regeneration. This is the symbol of baptism as rebirth as children of Light. Lighted tapers are also placed in the hands of the newly-baptized, or of their god-parents, with the admonition to preserve their baptism inviolate, so that they may go to meet the Lord when he comes to the wedding. Thus, too, as children of Light, candidates for ordination and novices about to take the vows carry lights. when they come before the bishop; and the same idea 17, CEo. underlies the custom of carrying lights at weddings, at the first communion, and by priests going to their first mass, though none of these are liturgically prescribed. Finally, lights are placed round the bodies of the dead and carried beside them to the grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light of Christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness.

Funeral

During the funeral service, the Paschal Candle is placed, burning, near the coffin, as a reminder of the deceased's baptismal vows and hope of eternal life and salvation brought about by the death and resurrection of Jesus, and of faith in the resurrection of the dead.

Excommunication

Conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of excommunication (Ponlificale Rom. pars iii.). Regino, abbot of Prum, describes the ceremony as it was carried out in his day, when its terrors were yet unabated (De eccies. disciplsna, Excom ii. 409). Twelve priests should stand about the bishop, holding in their hands lighted torches, which at the conclusion of the anathema or excommunication they should cast down and trample under foot. When the excommunication is removed, the symbol of reconciliation is the handing to the penitent of a burning taper.

Anglican usage

In the Church of England the practice has been less consistent. The first Book of Common Prayer directed two lights to be placed on the altar. This direction was omitted in the second Prayer-book; but the Ornaments Rubric of Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book again made them obligatory. The question of how far this did so is a much-disputed one and is connected with the whole problem of the meaning and scope of the rubric. Uncertainty reigns with regard to the actual usage of the Church of England from the Reformation onwards. Lighted candles certainly continued to burn in Queen Elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of Protestant zealots. They also seem to have been retained in certain cathedral and collegiate churches. There is, however, no mention of ceremonial candles in the detailed account of the services of the Church of England given by William Harrison (Description of England, 1570). They seem never to have been illegal under the Acts of Uniformity. The use of wax lights and tapers formed one of the indictments brought by Peter Smart, a Puritan prebendary of Durham, against Dr. Burgoyne, John Cosin and others for setting up superstitious ceremonies in the cathedral contrary to the Act of Uniformity. The indictments were dismissed in 1628 by Sir James Whitelocke, chief justice of Chester and a judge of the Kings Bench, and in 1629 by Sir Henry Yelverton, a judge of Common Pleas and himself a strong Puritan.

The use of ceremonial lights was among the indictments in the impeachment of Laud and other bishops by the House of Commons, but these were not based on the Act of Uniformity. From the Restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights, though far from universal, was usual again in cathedrals and collegiate churches.

It was not, however, till the Oxford Movement of the 19th century that their use was widely extended in parish churches. The growing custom met with some opposition; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the Privy Council declared altar lights to be illegal (Martin v. Mackonochie). This judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on insufficient knowledge, produced no effect. In the absence of any authoritative negative pronouncement, churches returned to practically the whole ceremonial use of lights as practised in the Roman Catholic Church.

The matter was again raised in the case of Read and others v. the Bishop of Lincoln, one of the counts of the indictment being that the bishop had, during the celebration of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf or retable behind the communion table when they were not necessary for giving light. The Archbishop of Canterbury, in whose court the case was heard (1889), decided that the mere presence of two candles on the table, burning during the service but lit before it began, was lawful under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had never been made unlawful. On the case being appealed to the Privy Council, this particular indictment was dismissed on the ground that the vicar, not the bishop, was responsible for the presence of the lights.

The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead, especially when lying in state, has never wholly died out in the Anglican communion. In the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in England to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. A contemporary illustration shows a funeral cortege preceded and accompanied by boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. The usage in this respect in Anglo-Catholic churches is a revival of pre-Reformation ceremonial as is found in the Roman Catholic Church.

In the Church of Ireland, a branch of Anglicanism that is both Catholic and Apostolic in origins and in the closest historical and doctrinal communion with the younger Church of England, but with a more generally robust middle- to low-church tradition in ritual, the use of candles and lanterns of all kinds is canonically forbidden except for the specific purpose of "giving light" during services. This conforms to that Church's similar abjuring of, for example, incense, all but rather simple clerical vestments, mitres, eucharistic wafers, the Reserved Sacrament and the elevation of the sacred elements in the Eucharist.

Protestant usage

As a result of the Reformation the use of ceremonial lights was either greatly modified, or totally abolished in the Protestant Churches. In the Reformed (Calvinistic) Churches altar lights were, with the rest, done away with entirely as popish and superstitious. In the Lutheran Churches they were retained, and in Evangelical Germany have even survived most of the other medieval rites and ceremonies (e.g. the use of vestments) which were not abolished at the Reformation itself. The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead is still practiced by some Protestants.

References

Article Lucerna, by J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquits Grecques et Romaines (Paris, 1904)

J. Marquardt, Rmische Privatalterthumer (vol. v. of Wilhelm Adolf Becker, Handbuch der rmische Alterthumer ii. 238-301)

Article Cierges et lampes, in Joseph-Alexander Martigny, Dictionnaire des Antiquits Chrtiennes (Paris, 1865)

Articles Lichter and Koimetarien (pp. 834 seq ) in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopedie (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901)

Article Licht in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon (Freiburg-i.-B.,1882-1901), an exposition of the symbolism from the Catholic point of view, also Kerze and Lichter

W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (London. 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.

W. Mhlbauer, Geschichte und Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen (Augsburg, 1874)

V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik (Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.

Hierurgia Anglicana, edition by Vernon Staley (London, 1903)

Notes and references

^ i. 26, 6.

^ vii. 22, ~ 2 and 3.

^ Juvenal, Sat. xii. 92; Tertullian, Apol. xxxv.

^ John i. 9.

^ Luke ix. 29.

^ Acts ii. 3.

^ Acts ix. 3.

^ Rev. ~. 14, 15.

^ Acts xx. 7, 8.

^ Martigny, Did. des antiqs~. C/fret.

^ A pal. xxxv.

^ Div. Inst. vi. de vero cultu, cap. 2, in Migne, Patrologia Latina vi. 637.

^ J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, Diaionnaire, s.v.

^ Peristeph. ii. 71, in Migne, centuries. Patr. Lat. lx. 300.

^ in Sylv.

^ Hier. Ep. cix. al. 53 ad Ripuarium Presbyt., in Migne, Patr. Lat. p. 906.

^ Patr. Lat. t. xxiii.

^ Poem. De S. Felice natal itium, xiv. ~, in Migne, Patr. Lat. lxi. 467.

^ Lib. i. Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358. i In sanct. Pasch. c. 2; Migne, Patrologia graeca, xxxvi. 624; Vita Constantini, iv. 66.

^ Ep. cviii. ad Eustochium virginem, in Migne.

^ Du Cange, Glossarium, sv. Cereum Paschale.

^ Elym. vii. 12; xx. 10.

^ Hierurgia Anglicana, ii pp. 230 seq.)

^ Picart (op. cit. 1737)

Categories: Light sources | Ritual | Religious objectsHidden categories: Articles to be merged from October 2009 | All articles to be merged | Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica

Netphen

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Geography

Location

Netphen lies on the Rothaargebirge's southern slope and forms the natural boundary of the Wittgensteiner Land. The municipal area is made up of many dales and mountain ridges. Northeast of the constituent community of Walpersdorf lies the source of the river Sieg and in the Lahnhof another constituent community whose name takes the definite article lies the source of the river Lahn. ericsson t39

Population development i860 nextel phone

(in each case at 31 December) i mate jamin

1998 25,027

1999 25,048

2000 25,034

2001 25,038

2002 25,078

2003 25,117

2004 24,855

Constituent communities

Constituent communities

Afholderbach

Beienbach

The constituent community of Beienbach lies at the end of a small side dale of the Sieg between Netphen and Deuz and is fringed by spruce and broadleaf forest on the heights and by agricultural areas as well as old "fruit meadows" (where various fruit trees grow) right at the edge of the community. It is also crossed by the Katzenbach. It had its first documentary mention in 1299.

Brauersdorf

Brauersdorf lies near the Netphen Leisure Park (Netphener Freizeitpark) with its swimming pool, skating rink, fitness and sport centre, miniature golf course, and so on. Furthermore, the community lies right at the Obernau Dam.

Brauersdorf

Deuz

Owing to its advantageous location, Deuz became the first industrial community in the old Amt of Netphen. Moving the Irle iron foundry from Kaan-Marienborn to Deuz is viewed as an economic birth. Over the years, further businesses have set up shop in Deuz.

Dreis-Tiefenbach

Dreis-Tiefenbach is, with its population of about 5300, Netphen's biggest constituent community, lying about 262 to 350 m above sea level on an area of some 7.5 km. It is roughly 6 km from Siegen and 4 km from Netphen (main town). Dreis-Tiefenbach lies on Federal Highway (Bundesstrae) 62, which joins with the Httentalstrae. The community's environs consist of relatively broad, thick mixed forest and broad meadows. Dreis-Tiefenbach was likely once settled by Celts. It had its first documentary mention in 1239.

Eckmannshausen

Eschenbach

Frohnhausen

Frohnhausen lies roughly 2 km from Netphen (main town). As of 2005, some 470 people live there. The community ranges from 350 to 540 m above sea level, and roughly 70% of it is wooded, with the rest made up of fields, meadows, and built-up areas.

The heart of the village consists mainly of half-timbered houses protected as monuments and built in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Grissenbach

Grissenbach lies in Netphen's east, right at the foot of the Rothaargebirge Nature Park. As with Frohnhausen, 70% of the community is wooded, with the rest made up of fields, meadows, and built-up areas. The community ranges from 336 to 530 m above sea level, and has an area of 4.6 km.

As of June 2005, Grissenbach is home to 894 people, giving it a population density of 194/km, considerably lower than the average for the Federal Republic of Germany (about 230/km).

Hainchen

Population development:

1939 439 1975 768 2005 1000+

Hainchen's area encompasses 10.7 km, 6.5 km of which is wooded, with the rest made up of meadows and built-up areas. The boundary runs for roughly 8 km along the border with Hesse. As well, Hainchen borders on the town of Bad Laasphe in the north and in the south on the community of Wilnsdorf. The difference in elevation between the entrance to the community and the exit from it at the Hessian border is 96 m (384 to 480 m).

From the entrance to the Geiersgrundbach Valley to the boundary with Bad Laasphe, the difference in elevation is 190 m.

The community has developed from one of small handicraft businesses and independent farmers to an industrial community nowadays, with two prefabricated house companies, one mechanical workshop and four service-sector businesses setting up shop here. Furthermore, there are four businesses using agricultural land, two of which are major landholders.

All together, there are 129 registered jobs in the community. The overwhelming majority of workers commute to neighbouring areas (Greater Siegen, neighbouring areas in Hesse). An advantage to the community is the nearby A 45, only 14 km away and reachable in a matter of minutes. The advantageous transport links have also had something to do with revitalizing the hiking trails along the Rothaarsteig, 7 km of which run through Hainchen.

Hainchen also has a castle, the Burg Hainchen, built in the heights with a moat. It has been standing at least since 1290, the year when it was first mentioned in a document.

Helgersdorf

Some 400 people live in Helgersdorf. Things to see there include the Mahnglockenturm (bell tower), the Backes (an old bakehouse), the old mill and Saint Elisabeth's Chapel. Here, too, the Wurstekommission "Sausage Commission" has been represented since 1919 (this is an organization dedicated mostly to scaring away evil spirits at New Year's; they get their name from the door-to-door sausage donations that they seek for the attendant festival).

Herzhausen

Herzhausen was for a long time an independent community, but is now a constituent community of Netphen. Lying in the middle of the Rothaargebirge, Herzhausen is even now still shaped by agriculture and forestry as well as ancient Siegerland traditions such as the Hauberg (a long-standing practice of coperative forestry in this region) or the Martinsfeuer, or Saint Martin's Fire, a custom on Saint Martin's Day (11 November). The high point of the year is the yearly shooting festival, known far beyond the regional bounds.

Herzhausen lies on the state highway (Landesstrae) between Dreis-Tiefenbach and Hilchenbach. In 2005, a citizens' club was founded. Also once found in Herzhausen was the district garbage dump. The storage of household rubbish there, however, is no longer allowed, and it is now used as an earth dump. Further trash is now sorted for incineration and forwarded.

Irmgarteichen

Roughly 900 people call Irmgarteichen home. It was once a community with great (ecclesiastical) importance. In Irmgarteichen, many clubs have had a hand in shaping the community as it is today. Very import rites are Drette Krestach and the Osterfeuer of the Hermedeicher Jonge.

Nenkersdorf

Mill in Nenkersdorf

Nenkersdorf lies east of the constituent community of Grissenbach. The historic watermill on the eastern edge of the community is said to be particularly worth seeing.

Lahnhof

Source of the Lahn in the Lahnhof

The Lahnhof, whose name takes the definite article (always der/den/dem Lahnhof, des Lahnhof(e)s in German), lies in the southeast Rothaargebirge at a height of 607 m above sea level. Its name first appeared in a document in 1333. Right nearby rise the rivers Lahn, Sieg and Eder. The pristine nature, to say nothing of the outstanding views when the weather is good, has led the Lahnhof to become, just as was also true one hundred years ago, one of the best loved local outing destinations from near and far.

Oelgershausen

Salchendorf

Since at least 1920 there has been in Salchendorf a youth association called the Wurstekommission (see Helgersdorf above) which has about 50 active members, 14 of whom are on the council of elders. In the middle of the village has stood since 1995 the Wurstekommission Memorial.

A Salchendorf portal is in the planning stage.

Sohlbach

Unglinghausen

Walpersdorf

Walpersdorf

Walpersdorf had its first documentary mention in 1344. It is well known for its charcoal kilns and nature reserve with its snowflake meadows. Geographically, Walpersdorf, the first place on the river Sieg, lies at the edge of the Rothaarsteig hiking trail. About 3 km away rise the rivers Sieg, Lahn and Eder.

Werthenbach

Wertenbach was once an independent community. It came into being sometime between 900 and 1300 and has an adjusted area of 9.37 km, meaning that the area was once greater, but early in the 18th century, former border forests and protected woodlands belonging to the local lord were merged with neighbouring communities.

Werthenbach, unlike other constituent communities' names like Sohlbach, Beienbach, Grissenbach, and so on, is not the community's original name, but rather it was once called Werthenbrecht. The placename element brecht that occurred in the name before it was corrupted can be compared to the common mountain name Bracht, and in the Rhenish Slate Mountains can still be found as a description for newer "clearing" communities.

Werthenbach's earliest mentions:

1336 Hartmann von Wertinbrecht

1343 Hartmann von Wertinbracht

1344 Wernckenbracht.

In 1343, the Lords of Bicken relinquished an estate (actually a Hauberg see Herzhausen above) to the villagers in what was then called Wertinbracht as long as they paid a yearly fee for this favour to the Monastery of Keppel. The earnings from the Bicken estates in 1447 amounted to a "tithe of 7 Malter of corn, 11 Malter of oats" (a Malter being "15 pieces", so 105 and 165 respectively). Eleven houses stood on monastery land in 1566.

A few meadows in Werthenbach have names bearing witness to the old landlords' ownership or rights. Zehntwiese, for instance, refers to Zehnten tithes.

The Herrenberg (mountain) has a name suggesting lordly ownership ("Herr" means "lord").

The local "Hauberg" forestry coperative, popularly called "Kloster" ("Monastery") evokes the Keppel Monastery's historical ownership of the land.

In Werthenbach, on the street "Am Heller", 5 holiday cottages are to be built by 2007. Despite considerable protest from some quarters of the village community, the holiday village was approved on 27 March 2006 by the Netphen Town Development Board. Critics hold that it is unfair that rather than private houses, holiday cottages are being built on these lots. They will be built by a local prefabricated house company.

History

The earliest mention of this region of Siegen-Wittgenstein goes back to the 11th century. Here, as in most parts of the old Siegen district, the princely House of Nassau is named as the local overlords.

In 1215, the Lords of Hain were mentioned as being at Hainchen Castle.

From 1635 to 1637 raged the Plague.

In 1742, Netphen, like all other places north of the Lahn, passed to Prince Wilhelm Karl Friso of Orange, Prince of Diez and heir to the United Netherlands, thereby making the Principality of Nassau-Siegen part of the Netherlands.

Napoleon added the Siegerland to the Grand Duchy of Berg as part of his rearrangement of Germany. This change was, however, undone in 1813 and Netphen once again became Orange domain. In 1815, the House of Orange forwent all its German possessions and Netphen passed to Prussia in 1816.

On 1 January 1969, as part of municipal reform, the greater community of Netphen came into being. On 30 June 1997, Netphen's population reached the 25,000 mark, thereby earning it town status. This was not made official, however, until just before the turn of the millennium, on 1 January 2000.

Politics

Town council

The town council's 38 seats are apportioned thus, in accordance with municipal elections held on 30 August 2009:

CDU 18 seats

SPD 10 seats

Greens 4 seats

FDP 3 seats

UWG 6 seats

Die Linke 1 seat

Note: UWG is a citizens' coalition.

Coat of arms

Netphen's civic coat of arms might heraldically be described thus: Party per fess, above, in azure a lion rampant Or armed and langued gules with seven billets Or, below, in Or a boar saltant sable langued gules.

The lion is from Nassau's arms. The springing boar is copied from the oldest preserved seal of the Siegerland Court, from 1467. It belonged to the "Schffen tzo Netfe ind Irmgarteichen", or the Jurymen at Netphen and Irmgarteichen. The Netphen symbol has its origins in the old Yule festival, in which the boar was sacrificed to the gods.

Town partnerships

aga, Poland, since 1995

Quivy, France

Vrchlab, Czech Republic

Culture and sightseeing

Museen

Heimatmuseum

Since 1996 there has existed in the local history museum a great exhibition room with exhibits from prehistory and early history. The focus is on the Netpherland economy with tanning, charcoal making, the Hauberg forestry system, the practice of Hude (  silvopasture) and beekeeping. The same building also houses the cultural and tourism office.

Buildings

Martinikirche

The Martini Church is a hall church from the 13th century. Beginning at dusk and into the night, the Romanesque tower is lit up.

Obernautalsperre

The Obernau Reservoir, which holds 15 000 000 m of water is the biggest drinking water reservoir in the Siegerland. A track leading all the way round the reservoir invites hikers. Towering over the reservoir is the Alte Burg, or Old Castle, a "flight castle" (one used mainly for retreat or refuge) and a place of worship from La Tne times about 500 BC. Every New Year's Eve, a Volkslauf (  fun run) is held there.

Wasserburg Hainchen

In Hainchen is found the reconstructed Wasserburg Hainchen, a moat-ringed castle.

Nenkersdorf Watermill

The mill's history goes back to the 12th century. It belonged until the 14th century to the Lords (Schlossherren) of Hainchen. At that time, the lord gave it to his tenant. Since that time, for more than five generations, the mill has been under the Weber family's ownership.

Walpersdorf charcoal kiln

Making charcoal is a tradition that goes back a long time in the Siegerland, owing mainly to another long tradition, iron smelting. In Walpersdorf is found the Siegerland's only charcoal kiln that is still used. The charcoal is made out of oak, birch and beech, yielding roughly one tonne of charcoal for every four of wood.

Sport

Netphen has a leisure park with a tennis hall, an ice stadium and an indoor swimming pool. The tennis hall and ice stadium were completed in October 1976, and on 14 May 1977 opened together with the indoor swimming pool. The outdoor swimming pool followed a short time later. Netphen's biggest sport club is the TVE.

Culinary specialities

Riewekooche, a kind of potato bread, is the local contribution to the world of food.

Economy and infrastructure

Established businesses

Firma Walzen Irle GmbH

Walzen Irle GmbH is a roller manufacturer. The traditional business can look back on a 180-year history, and was the first company in Germany to make chilled cast iron rollers. Today Walzen Irle belongs to the Irle Group and is a 100% daughter company of Irle-Deuz GmbH.

Flender-Flux

Flender-Flux is a traditional business in Deuz with a 240-year history whose main business is in manufacturing metal roof systems.

Deuzer Maschinenfabrik Heitze GmbH & Co.

The firm began on 1 May 1939 as a limited partnership for the purpose of making machines and apparatuses and also pursuing trade in the same, under the name Maschinenfabrik M Heitze, Kommanditgesellschaft, and under the personally liable partner, millwrighting master Martin Heitze, the engineer Edmund Dietrich and the director Ernst Zimmermann.

By late 1939, the first works hall with a floor area of 600 m was in place, and it was equipped with 3 lathes, 1 drilling machine, 1 handheld welding site and 5 millwrighting workplaces. Machine production did not, however, begin before the war broke out that same year.

In 1939, the workforce was 6 persons. By late 1945, this had risen to 8. The first machines built at the plant were ones for woodworking, such as firewood cutting machines, carpenter's circular saws, wood drilling machines and long band saws. This production stopped in 1945 after more than 200 machines had been completed.

When Mr. Honig joined the firm after the Second World War as a constructing engineer, and later a shareholder, his connection to his former employer, the Waldrich firm in Siegen, led to the company's beginning production, with the Eugen Waldrich firm in Bad Godesberg, of glass pane finishing machines late in 1945.

The programme was based on folding-arm polishing machines, combination grinding and polishing machines, horizontal grinding machines, glass drilling machines and groove cutting machines. Production continued until 1965, shutting down only slowly after having fulfilled the glass industry's backlog.

Bombardier Transportation

In Netphen lies a Bombardier Transportation works at which bogies are made.

Transport

The world's first petrol-powered bus on the world's first busline. The destinations are clearly printed.

The main road to the town is Federal Highway (Bundesstrae) B 62, crossing the municipal area from southwest to northeast. At Dreis-Tiefenbach is an interchange with the Siegen municipal Autobahn (Httentalstrae).

For goods transport, there was once a railway line that ran from Irmgarteichen to Siegen-Weidenau. It stopped running in 2004, except for works runs between Walzen Irle's works. Other than that, local transport is supplied by buslines of the South Westphalia Transport Community (Verkehrsgemeinschaft Westfalen-Sd; VGWS).

A short stretch of the Rothaarbahn railway cuts across the municipal area in the northeast, but there is no stop.

The world's first busline led to Netphen, run by the Netphener Omnibusgesellschaft and opened on 18 March 1895 with one petrol-powered omnibus.

The town is connected to international air travel through the Siegerland Airport in Burbach, southwest of Netphen.

References

External links

Netphen (German)

Deuz (German)

Beienbach (German)

Helgersdorf (German)

Irmgarteichen (German)

Oelgershausen (German)

Deuzer Maschinenfabrik Heitze GmbH & Co. (German)

Eine-Welt-Laden St.Ccilia Irmgarteichen (German)

Private website with many photographs of the Netpherland (German)

v  d  e

Towns and municipalities in Siegen-Wittgenstein

Bad Berleburg | Bad Laasphe | Burbach | Erndtebrck | Freudenberg | Hilchenbach | Kreuztal | Netphen | Neunkirchen | Siegen | Wilnsdorf 

Categories: Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia | Rothaargebirge

Hydro massage

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History of Hydro massage

Hydro massage as a proven natural remedy has been known and used for years. The history of hydro therapy goes centuries back, as far as ancient Greece, but it was truly made popular by Romans, who introduced the benefits of bathing and massage to the countries they conquered. Roman public baths were always recognized as a great source of relaxation where members of high society and all free people alike could enjoy the benefits of hot and cold water as well as massage.

The modern history on hydro-massage begins with a man named Tobias Smollet. He wrote an essay on the water cure, which remarked that the pumped water was good for "hysterical disorders, obstruction of the menses and all cases which it was necessary to make a revulsion from the head and to invite the juices downward". Since the sixties of the twentieth century, hydro massage has been gaining popularity. Every year more advanced hydro massage tools and equipment appear, making it easily available to many people, as these tools and equipment can be easily used at people's homes. timber tops

Today the hydro-massage is still widely popular and used for the ailments and conditions listed and much, much more. It is one of the most requested and popular forms of massage. chainsaw carving

Hydro massage methods granite uba tuba

There are many hydro massage methods, for instance, underwater manual massage, jet massage in the air, high-pressure water massage and many other.

Hydro massage effect

Hydro massage creates awareness of the body, reduces anxiety levels, gives a sense of well-being, improves the ability to monitor stress signals, gives a feeling of peace of mind, it also helps to alleviate discomfort caused by pregnancy, provides with a relaxed state of mental alertness, helps treat athletic or job related injuries, tension related headaches and post-operative rehabilitation.

See also

Massage

Vibromassage

Honey massage

Cup massage

Cryomassage

Categories: MassageHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from April 2007 | All articles lacking sources

Schaeffler Group

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www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?xml=/money/2008/08/22/cnball122.xml. Retrieved 2008-08-25.  12v pump water

This German corporation or company article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. jabsco pumps

v  d  e 12v water pump

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Caterpillar 797

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Development

In 1997, Caterpillar decided to begin development of a 360 short tons (327 t) payload capacity haul truck to meet the demand from large-scale mine operators wanting to reduce operating costs at mines using 80 to 90 short tons (73 to 82 t) per pass shovels. Engineers at Caterpillar's Mining & Construction Equipment Division in Decatur, Illinois created a new design for the 797 using computer-aided design technology. This was the first time CAD tools had been used extensively to design a Caterpillar truck. Caterpillar first unveiled a completed 797 on September 29, 1998 at the Decatur, Illinois assembly plant. The first two 797's produced were transported to Caterpillar's Arizona proving grounds for testing. In the second quarter of 1999, the third and fourth 797's produced were the first to be placed in service with a customer at the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah. Caterpillar put 18 additional 797's into service with mine operators world wide as production development units. Caterpillar began marketing the 797 in North America in 2000, with full world wide marketing following in 2001.

Product Improvements swimwear separates

Caterpillar has produced three generations of 797 haul trucks: the original 797, the second-generation model 797B, and the third-generation, current-production model 797F. thongs micro

Caterpillar introduced the the 797B in spring of 2002, replacing the first-generation 797. Caterpillar increased the power output of the Cat 3524B engine to cope with the 797B's higher payload capacity of up to 380 short tons (345 t), a 20 short tons (18 t) improvement over the 797. The first 797B units entered service with customers in October, 2002. micro mini bikini

Caterpillar introduced the latest 797 in the series, the 797F, at MINExpo International in September, 2008. When Caterpillar began full production of the 797F in late 2009, the 797F replaced the 797B. The 797F comes equipped with a new, more powerful and more efficient Cat C175-20 engine and an increased payload capacity of up to 400 short tons (363 t).

Powertrain

The Caterpillar 797 series trucks employ mechanical drive powertrains in contrast to the diesel-electric powertrains of similar haul trucks offered by competitors. During initial development in 1997, a diesel-electric powertrain was considered for the 797, but this powertrain configuration was not developed because Caterpillar considered a mechanical drive powertrain more appropriate for market conditions at that time.

797 Engine

A gross 3,400 hp (2,535 kW) [net 3,211 hp (2,394 kW)] Cat 3524B HD EUI 24-cylinder, high displacement, electronic unit injection, quad single-stage turbocharged, aftercooled, four-stroke diesel engine powers the 797. The Cat 3524B HD engine is a tandem unit consisting of two 12-cylinder Cat 3512B HD engine blocks coupled to operate as a single engine.

797B Engine

A gross 3,550 hp (2,647 kW) [net 3,370 hp (2,513 kW)], twin turbocharged version of the Cat 3524B engine powers the 797B. The power rating of the 3524B is valid up to an elevation of 8,500 ft (2,591 m) or 15,000 ft (4,572 m) with a high altitude arrangement.

797F Engine

A gross 4,000 hp (2,983 kW) [net 3,793 hp (2,828 kW)] Cat C175-20 ACERT single block, 20-cylinder, electronic common rail injection, quad turbocharged, air-to-air aftercooled, four-stroke diesel engine powers the 797F. The power rating of the C175-20 is valid up to an elevation of 7,000 ft (2,134 m) or up to 16,000 ft (4,877 m) with a high altitude arrangement.

Transmission

The 797 series haul trucks are equipped with a rear axle mounted, computer controlled, seven speed planetary transmission with an integral lock-up torque converter.

Wheels and Tires

The Caterpillar 797 series haul trucks run on the largest tire in the world, the 4.028 m (13.22 ft) tall, 5,300 kg (11,680 lb) Michelin 59/80R63 XDR. This radial tire was developed by Michelin in conjunction with Caterpillar specifically for the 797. Six tires are required per truck at a cost of approximately USD $42,500 per tire.

Each wheel is attached to the axle using 47 nuts that are torqued to 2,300 ftlb (3,118 Nm).

Manufacturing and Assembly

Major components of the 797 are manufactured and assembled at six Caterpillar or supplier facilities located throughout North America, then shipped to the customer site for final assembly by Caterpillar technicians.

The engine is manufactured by Caterpillar in Lafayette, Indiana and is then shipped to Caterpillar's Decatur, Illinois assembly plant.

The tires are manufactured by Michelin North America at the US7 Earthmover Manufacturing plant in Lexington, South Carolina and are shipped to the customer site.

The driver's cab is manufactured by Bergstrom Climate Control Systems' Contract Assembly division in Joliet, Illinois. Each cab is assembled by one person and requires forty hours to complete. The cab is shipped to the customer site.

The dump body is composed of five components: the floor, the two sides, the front wall and the canopy. The dump body is shipped in component form to the customer site where it is assembled and welded into a monolithic structure before being joined to the frame during final assembly.

The frame is created from nine individual metal castings manufactured by Amite Foundry and Machine Inc. in Amite City, Louisiana. The smallest casting weighs 500 lb (230 kg) and the largest casting weighs 12,000 lb (5,400 kg). The rough castings are shipped to the Caterpillar Decatur, Illinois assembly plant.

At Caterpillar's Decatur, Illinois assembly plant, the frame is assembled and the powertrain is installed and tested.

The nine castings that compose the frame are machined to provide clean welding surfaces. The castings are placed in a jig and are initially joined by human welders. The frame is moved to a second welding station for further welding by robots. The third and final welding stage is completed by human welders. To ensure quality, welds are tested using an ultrasonic flaw detector. In total, 275 lb (125 kg) of welding wire is used to join the individual castings into a monolithic frame.

After the frame assembly is completed, production workers attach hydraulic lines and electrical wiring to the frame before installing the engine and rear axle . The frame/powertrain assembly is tested and then partially disassembled to facilitate shipping from Caterpillar's Decatur, Illinois assembly plant to the customer site.

Transportation

The engine, frame, axles and differential requires six to seven semi-trailer truck loads, the cab requires one semi-trailer load, the six tires require two semi-trailer loads and the dump body requires four semi-trailer loads. In total, one 797 requires 12 to 13 semi-trailer truck loads that originate at various manufacturing facilities and deliver to the customer site. If a 797 must be moved from one job site to another for any reason, it can not be driven on public roads due to its exceptional size and weight. Moving a 797 requires dis-assembly, loading onto semi-trailer trucks, transport and re-assembly at the new location.

Final Assembly

Final assembly of the 797 is completed by Caterpillar field mechanics at or near the customer site. Before the dump body can be joined to the frame, the dump body components must be assembled and welded together by a dedicated team, requiring seven to ten days per dump body. Final assembly of one 797 requires a team of seven mechanics working in three shifts around the clock, seven days per week for 20 days in addition to the time required to assemble and weld the dump body.

Specifications

Caterpillar 797 Series Specifications

Specification

797

797B

797F

Introduction to Service

1999

2002

2008

Nominal Payload Capacity

360 short tons (327 t)

380 short tons (345 t)

400 short tons (363 t)

Gross Machine Operating Weight

1,230,000 lb (557,900 kg)

1,375,000 lb (623,700 kg)

1,375,000 lb (623,700 kg)

Engine Model

3524B High Displacement EUI

Cat 3524B High Displacement EUI

Cat C175-20 ACERT

Engine Arrangement

V-12 x 2

V-12 x 2

V-20

Engine Power

3,211 hp (2,394 kW) net

3,370 hp (2,513 kW) net (SAE J1349)

3,793 hp (2,828 kW) net (SAE J1349)

Top Speed (Loaded)

40 mph (64 km/h)

42 mph (68 km/h)

42 mph (68 km/h)

Overall Height to Top of ROPS (Empty)

23 ft 8 in (7.21 m)

24 ft 11 in (7.59 m)

24 ft 5 in (7.44 m)

Overall Height (Body Raised)

49 ft 3 in (15.01 m)

50 ft 2 in (15.29 m)

51 ft 6 in (15.70 m)

Overall Length

47 ft 7 in (14.50 m)

47 ft 5 in (14.45 m)

49 ft 6 in (15.09 m)

Overall Tire Width

30 ft 0 in (9.14 m)

32 ft 0 in (9.75 m)

31 ft 3 in (9.53 m)

Fuel Capacity

1,000 US gal (3,785 l)

1,800 US gal (6,814 l)

1,000 US gal (3,785 l)

Cost

Although the price varies based on individual customer specifications, each 797 costs approximately USD $5,000,000.

Service Life

All of the major components of the 797 can be serviced or replaced during the useful life of the truck, except for the frame. The overall service life of the truck is therefore dependent upon the durability of the frame which Caterpillar estimates to have a twenty year service life.

Competition

The Liebherr T 282 B and Bucyrus MT6300AC both match the Caterpillar 797F's 400 short tons (363 t) payload capacity, but employ diesel/electric powertrains in contrast to the 797F's diesel powered, mechanical powertrain. Depending on customer requirements, lower payload capacity 360 short tons (327 t) products such as the Komatsu 960E-1 may also place competitive pressure on sales of the 797F.

See also

Komatsu 960E

Liebherr T 282B

Terex Titan

Haul truck

References

^ "Off-Highway Trucks from Caterpillar". Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khMDWHyR. Retrieved 2009-10-21. "Developed specifically for high production mining and heavy-duty construction applications ..." 

^ "Mining Trucks from Caterpillar". Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5kqfFouCo. Retrieved 2009-10-27. 

^ "Caterpillar 797F Mining Truck Product Brochure (AEHQ6039)" (PDF). Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. 09 2009. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khS1wxbr. Retrieved 2009-10-28. "Nominal payload capacity...400 tons" 

^ a b c d Mercer, Mike (06 1999). "A look at Cat's new 797 haul truck - Caterpillar Inc". Diesel Progress North American Edition. CBS Interactive Inc.. p. 1. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FZX/is_6_65/ai_55084212/. Retrieved 2009-10-27. "Caterpillar designed the truck in response to mining companies seeking a means to reduce cost per ton ..." 

^ Orlemann, Eric C. (2003). "Chapter 9 - A New Generation". in Steve Gansen. The Caterpillar Century. United States of America: Motorbook International. p. 319. ISBN 0-7603-1882-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=073x8SEhQIwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2009-10-27. 

^ "Caterpillar 797F, 795F-AC & 793F Mining Trucks". Mining Top News Website. 2008-10-06. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khOGskn8. Retrieved 2009-10-21. "At MINExpo 2008 Caterpillar introduced four new trucks.... the new 797F mechanical drive ..." 

^ Caterpillar Inc. (2009-07). "Release Number: 231PR09 - Caterpillar Moves Forward with New Large Mining Trucks" (Microsoft Word 97-2003 Document). Press release. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khQOT0RQ. Retrieved 2009-10-21. "... go into full production...late this year." 

^ a b "Viewpoint: Perspectives on Global Mining" (PDF). Caterpillar Inc.. 2008 - Issue 4. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khWLKC0b. Retrieved 2009-10-21. "... the flagship 797B will be replaced by the new 797F ..." 

^ Orlemann, Eric C. (2002). "Chapter 2 - The World's Largest Mechanical Drive Truck - 797 Haul Truck". in Kris Palmer. Colossal Caterpillar: The Ultimate Earthmover. United States of America: MBI Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 0-7603-0874-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_dvp_jVSuEQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2009-10-27. 

^ Mercer, Mike (03 1999). "New era of mine haul truck giants". Diesel Progress North American Edition. CBS Interactive Inc.. p. 3. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FZX/is_3_65/ai_54422720/. Retrieved 2009-12-10. "... diesel engine, which features electronic unit injection, an ADEM II electronic controller, aftercooling and four single-stage turbochargers." 

^ "Products Machines Off-Highway Trucks Mining Trucks 797B Benefits & Features Powertrain - Engine". Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. Archived from the original on 2009-12-10. http://www.webcitation.org/5lvnkfIv9. Retrieved 2009-12-10. "The 3524B engine is a tandem unit consisting of two 3512B HD engine blocks ..." 

^ "Caterpillar 797B Mining Truck Product Brochure (AEHQ5511)" (PDF). Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. 12 2003. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5kqmQ4sYK. Retrieved 2009-10-28. "Gross Power 2648 kW 3550 hp Flywheel Power 2513 kW 3370hp" 

^ "Caterpillar 797B Mining Truck Product Brochure (AEHQ5511)" (PDF). Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. 12 2003. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5kqmQ4sYK. Retrieved 2009-10-28. "... 3524B begins derating at 2591 m altitude .... Optional High Altitude Arrangement does not derate between 3048-4572 m ..." 

^ "Caterpillar 797F Mining Truck Product Brochure (AEHQ6039)" (PDF). Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. 09 2009. pp. 1, 3. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khS1wxbr. Retrieved 2009-10-28. "Gross Power - SAE J1995 2983 kW 4,000 hp .... The Cat C175-20 quad turbocharged and air-to-air aftercooled diesel engine...is a 20 cylinder, single block, four stroke design ..." 

^ "Caterpillar 797F Mining Truck Product Brochure (AEHQ6039)" (PDF). Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. 09 2009. pp. 14. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21. http://www.webcitation.org/5khS1wxbr. Retrieved 2009-10-28. "No low altitude arrangement (LAA) engine derating required up to 2134m (7,000 ft) altitude. No high altitude arrangement (HAA) engine derating required up to 4877 m (16,000 ft) altitude." 

^ "Caterpillar 797B Mining Truck Product Brochure (AEHQ5511)" (PDF). Caterpillar Website. Caterpillar Inc.. 12 2003. p. 5. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5kqmQ4sYK. Retrieved 2009-10-28. "The Cat seven-speed planetary power shift transmission ..." 

^ "Michelin Factbook - 2007 Edition" (Shockwave Flash Presentation). Michelin Corporate Website. Manufacture Franaise des Pneumatiques Michelin. 2007. p. 15. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5kqaUeJSE. Retrieved 2009-10-27. "59/80 R 63 Michelin XDR Diameter: 4,028 meters...Weight: 5,300 kg ..." 

^ Mercer, Mike (1999-06). "A look at Cat's new 797 haul truck - Caterpillar Inc". Diesel Progress North American Edition. CBS Interactive Inc.. p. 2. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FZX/is_6_65/ai_55084212/pg_2/. Retrieved 2009-10-27. "This new tire was developed in conjunction with Caterpillar for this application." 

^ "Michelin, Bridgestone, Goodyear, Firestone, Taylor OTR Tires". Global InfoMine Website. InfoMine Inc.. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5kqZJt1X4. Retrieved 2009-10-27. "6 59/80R63 Michelin XDR B $255,000.00" 

^ a b c d e "Caterpillar". Executive Producer: Madeline Carter. Ultimate Factories. National Geographic Channel. 2008-01-28. No. 10, season unknown.

External links

Caterpillar 797B Mining Truck - Caterpillar Inc.

Caterpillar 797F Mining Truck - Caterpillar Inc.

2009 F-Series Mining Trucks Press Kit - Caterpillar Inc.

Product Safety > Off-Highway Tractors and Trucks - Caterpillar Inc.

Viewpoint - Perspectives on Modern Mining - Caterpillar Inc.

Amite Foundry & Machine Inc.

XDR Radial Tires - Earthmover Tires by Michelin - Michelin North America, Inc.

Bergstrom Climate Systems Contract Assembly Division - Bergstrom Inc.

Categories: Caterpillar vehicles | Dump trucks

Cold water pitting of copper tube

China Suppliers


Copper water tubes

Copper tubes have been used to distribute potable water within building for many years and hundreds of miles are installed throughout Europe every year. The long life of copper when exposed to natural waters is a result of its thermodynamic stability, its high resistance to reacting with the environment, and the formation of insoluble corrosion products that insulate the metal from the environment. The corrosion rate of copper in most potable waters is less than 25 m/year, at this rate a 15 mm tube with a wall thickness of 0.7 mm would last for about 280 years . In some soft waters the general corrosion rate may increase to 125 m/year, but even at this rate it would take over 50 years to perforate the same tube. Despite the reliability of copper and copper alloys, in some cold hard waters pits may form in the bore of a tube. If these pits form, failure times can be expected between 6 months and 2 years from initiation. The mechanism that leads to the pitting of copper in cold hard waters is complex, it requires a water with a specific chemistry that is capable of supporting pit growth and a mechanism for the initiation of the pits.

Pitting woven labels

The pits that penetrate the bore are usually covered in a hard pale green nodule of calcium carbonate. If the nodule is removed a hemispherical pit is revealed filled with coarse crystals of red cuprous oxide and green cuprous chloride. The pits are often referred to as Type 1 pits and the form of attack as Type 1 pitting. dvd labeler

Water foil labels

The characteristics capable of supporting Type 1 pits were determined empirically by Lucey after examining the compositions of waters in which the pitting behaviour was known . They should be cold, less that 30C, hard or moderately hard, 170 to 300 mg/l carbonate hardness, and organically pure. Organically pure waters usually originate from deep wells, or boreholes. Surface waters from rivers or lakes contain naturally occurring organic compounds that inhibit the formation of Type 1 pits, unless a deflocculation treatment has been carried out that removes organic material. Type 1 pitting is relatively uncommon in North America and this may be a result of the lower population density allowing a significant proportion of the potable water to be obtained from surface derived sources. In addition to being cold hard and organically pure, the water needs a specific chemistry. The effect of the water chemistry can be empirically determined though use of the Pitting Propensity Rating (PPR) a number that takes into account the sulfate, chloride, nitrate and sodium ion concentrations of the water as well as its acidity or pH. A water with a positive PPR has been shown to be capable of propagating Type 1 pits.

Initiation

Many waters in both the UK and Europe are capable of supporting Type 1 pitting but no problems will be experienced unless a pit is initiated in the wall of the tube. When a copper tube is initially filled with a hard water salts deposit on the wall and the copper slowly reacts with the water producing a thin protective layer of mixed corrosion products and hardness scale. If any pitting of the tube is to occur then this film must be locally disrupted. There are three mechanisms that allow the disruption of the protective deposits. The most well known, although now the least common, is the presence of carbon films on the bore. Stagnation and flux residues are the most common initiation mechanisms that have led to Type 1 pitting failures in the last 10 years.

Carbon Films

Copper tubes are made from the large billets of copper that are gradually worked and drawn down to the required size. As the tubes are drawn they are heat treated to produce the correct mechanical properties. The organic oils and greases used to lubricate the tubes during the drawing processes are broken down during the heat treatment and gradually coat the tube with a film of carbon. If the carbon is left in the bore of the tube then it disrupts the formation of the protective scale and allows the initiation of pits in the wall. The presence of deleterious films, such as carbon, has been prohibited by the British Standards in copper tubes since 1969 . All copper tubes for water service are treated, usually by grit blasting or acid pickling, to remove any films produced during manufacture with the result that Type 1 pitting initiated by carbon films is now very rare.

Stagnation

If water is left to stand in a tube for an extended period, the chemical characteristics of the water change as the mixed scale and corrosion products are deposited. In addition any loose scale that is not well adhered to the wall will not be flushed away and air dissolved in the water will form bubbles, producing air pockets. These processes can lead to a number of problems mainly on horizontal tube runs. Particles of scale that do not adhere to the walls and are not washed away tend to fall into the bottom of the tube producing a coarse porous deposit. Air pockets that develop in horizontal runs disrupt the formation of protective scales in two areas. The water lines at the sides and the air space at the top of the tube.

In each of the areas that the scale has been disrupted there is the possibility of the initiation of Type 1 pitting. Once pitting has initiated then even after the tube has been put back into service, the pit will continue to develop until the wall has perforated. This form of attack is often associated with the commissioning of a system. Once a system has been commissioned it should be either put immediately into service or drained down and dried by flushing with compressed air otherwise pitting may initiate. If either of these options is not possible then the system should be flushed though regularly until it is put into use.

Flux

In plumbing systems fluxes are used to keep the mating surfaces clean during soldering operations. The fluxes often consist of corrosive chemicals such as ammonium chloride and zinc chloride in a binder such as petroleum jelly. If too much flux is applied to the joint then the excess will melt and run down the bore of a vertical tube or pool in the bottom of a horizontal tube. Where the bore of the tube is covered in a layer of flux it may be locally protected from corrosion but at the edges of the flux pits often initiate. If the tube is put into service in a water that supports Type 1 pitting then these pits will develop and eventually perforate the sides of the tube.

Recommendations

In most cases Type 1 pitting can be avoided by good working practices. Always use tubes that have been manufactured to BS EN 1057. Tubes greater than 10 mm in diameter made to this standard will always be marked the number of the standard, the nominal size, wall thickness and temper of the tube, the manufacturer identification mark and the date of production at least every 600 mm. Tubes less than 10 mm in diameter will be similarly marked at each end.

Once a system has been commissioned it should be either put immediately into service or drained down and dried. If either of these options is not possible then the system should be flushed though regularly until it is put into use. It should not be left to stand for more than a week. At present stagnation is the most common cause of Type 1 pitting.

Flux should be used sparingly. A small quantity should be painted over the areas to be joined and any excess removed after the joint has been made. Some fluxes are marked as water-soluble but under some circumstances they are not removed before pitting has initiated.

References

^ Volume 13: Corrosion, Ninth Edition, Metals Handbook, ASM International, 1987.

^ V F Lucey, British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association, Research Report Number A1692, 1968

^ BS2871, Specification for Copper and Copper Alloy Tubes, Part 1. Copper tubes for water gas and sanitation

^ BS EN 1057: 1996, Copper and Copper Alloys Seamless, round copper tubes for water and gas in sanitary and heating applications

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Corrosion

NACE International -Professional society for corrosion engineers ( NACE )

Copper Pipe Corrosion Theory and informations on Corrosion of Copper Pipe

Categories: Corrosion | Pitting | Copper | Water