Wrebbit

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Wrebbit logo toy sword and shield

Wrebbit was a puzzle-making company best known for its Puzz-3D puzzles. The company was founded in Montreal, Quebec by Paul Gallant, and markets itself as "The Puzzle Innovators." Its namesake appears to stem from the fact that the company's mascot is a green frog, and "Wrebbit" is either an alternative spelling or possibly a play on words of the word ribbit. bounce ball toy

In the late 1990s, 3-dimensional puzzles were a successful fad, leading to rapid growth in the company. In 2001, the business was bought by Irwin Toy. When Irwin Toy filed for bankruptcy a year later, Wrebbit's founder bought back the business and relaunched it in a much reduced state. In 2005, the business was bought by Hasbro, which moved the manufacture of Wrebbit's puzzles to its East Longmeadow, Massachusetts facility in 2006. cessna 172

External links

Hasbro Puzz 3d Page

This puzzle/logic game-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

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Categories: Hasbro subsidiaries | Puzzle game stubs

Surgical instrument

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Classification

There are several classes of surgical instruments:

Graspers, such as forceps heated mattress

Clamps and occluders for blood vessels and other organs niosh n95 respirator

Retractors, used to spread open skin, ribs and other tissue kinesio tape

Distractors, positioners and stereotactic devices

Mechanical cutters (scalpels, lancets, drill bits, rasps, trocars, Ligasure, etc.)

Dilators and specula, for access to narrow passages or incisions

Suction tips and tubes, for removal of bodily fluids

Sealing devices as Surgical staplers, ...

Irrigation and injection needles, tips and tubes, for introducing fluid

Tyndallers, to help "wedge" open damaged tissues in the brain.

Powered devices, such as drills, dermatomes

Scopes and probes, including fiber optic endoscopes and tactile probes

Carriers and appliers for optical, electronic and mechanical devices

Ultrasound tissue disruptors, cryotomes and cutting laser guides

Measurement devices, such as rulers and calipers

An important relative distinction, regarding surgical instruments, is the amount of bodily disruption or tissue trauma that their use might cause the patient. Terms relating to this issue are 'atraumatic' and minimally invasive. Minimally invasive systems are an important recent development in surgery.

History

Surgical instruments have been manufactured since prehistoric times. Rough trephines for performing round craniotomies have been discovered in many neolithic sites. It is believed that they were used by shamans to release evil spirits and alleviate headaches and head traumas caused by war-inflicted wounds.

Surgeons and physicians in India have used sophisticated surgical instruments since ancient times. Sushruta Samhita (circa 500 BC) was probably the most important surgeon in ancient history, often known as the "father of surgery". In his text Sushruta Samhita he described over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classified human surgery in 8 categories.

In Antiquity, surgeons and physicians in Greece and Rome developed many ingenious instruments manufactured from bronze, iron and silver, such as scalpels, lancets, curettes, tweezers, specula, trephines, forceps, probes, dilators, tubes, surgical knives, etc. They are still very well preserved in several medical museums around the world. Most of these instruments continued to be used in Medieval times, albeit with a better manufacturing technique.

Medieval breakthrough

One of the key players who made the real breakthrough in surgical instrumentation was Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, known in the West as Abulcasis, and considered the "father of modern surgery". The first observation one must make at the outset is that Al-Zahrawi wrote his famous Al-Tasrif liman 'Ajiza 'an Al Ta'leef (written in 1000 CE), translated as The Method of Medicine, and often referred to as Al-Tasrif, after long experience accumulated over fifty years of practising medicine. The book, therefore, was aimed to establish the general guidelines in the practical medicine by emphasising the "do" and "don" in almost every issue encountered and the solutions/ treatments he provided or invented during this long experience. To complete his practical guide to solving various surgical problems, Al-Zahrawi ended this thirty volumes medical encyclopaedia with a treatise in which he introduces his famous collection of surgical tools exceeding a staggering total of 200 pieces. With its innovative title n Surgery, the treatise is considered the earliest elucidation compiled on the subject, which remained as the single best medieval source on the matter until modern times. In the words of Leclerc: l-Zahrawi remains a leading scholar who transformed surgery into an independent science based on the knowledge of anatomy. His illustration and drawing of the tools is an innovation that keeps his contribution alive, reflected in its continuous influence on the works of those who came after him

Additionally, Galen of Pergamum, one of the most profound philosophers, surgeons, medical philologists and physicians of the ancient world, requested that his specialised surgical instruments be made of iron ore found only in a quarry in the Celtic kingdom of Noricum. Galen along with other early Arab doctors, pioneered the approach to medical instrumentation and his followers of the Medieval period manufactured their instruments based on Galen's early designs.

Hamidan, for example, listed a total of twenty six innovations that Al-Zahrawi introduced . One of such discoveries was his use of catgut for internal stitching, a method that still practised in most of today surgery. The catgut appears to be the only natural substance capable of dissolving and acceptable by the body.

Al-Zahrawi does not only illustrate the tool using clear hand drawn sketches but also provides detailed information on the material and how and when it is used. Much of these are illustrated in Spink and Lewis (1973) book, one of the best and most comprehensive work available. For example, in cauterisation he states that: ccording to the opinion of the early (physicians) cauterisation using gold is better than when using iron. In our opinion the use of iron is quicker and more correct. As he goes on to deal with particular instruments and their use he often gives a clear description of how it is applied in addition to an accompanying sketch.

A second example of such description is what he wrote about the scraper (majrad) tool and its use when turning a fistula into the nose. octors give the name 'fistula' to what laymen call 'a quill'. When you have treated it with the cautery or with caustic according to the instructions given previously, and it is not healed, there is no clear method of treatment except to cut down on the tumour at its ripening and let out all the humidity or pus therein, till you reach the bone. When bone is reached and you see necrosis or blackness, scrape it with an instrument like this picture. It is called 'rough-head' and is made of Indian iron. Its head is round like a button 2 but is engraved with markings finely engraved, like those of a file or a rasp. Place it on the site of the diseased bone and spin it between your fingers, pressing down a little with your hand, till you are sure all the diseased bone has been scraped away. Do this several times. Then let the place be dressed with stanching and styptic remedies. And if the place heals and flesh is generated there and the flow of sanies is stayed and there is no return after leaving for forty days, and there is no swelling, and nothing emerges, you may know it is perfectly healed.

Not only the Al-Tasreef has exercised strong influence on later Muslim physicians but also became a reference book for most European medical schools and practitioners. It was first translated into Latin by Gherard of Cremona in the twelfth century to be followed by several other translations. Among the many European scholars to quote and cite from l-Tasreef and many other Muslim medical works was the Frenchman Guy de Chauliac (d.1369) in his work hirurgia magna. In fifteenth century Italian scholars rediscovered the works of Al-Zahrawi quoting his discoveries and remedies in their work. Among these one can refer to Mathieu de Gradibus who cited from Al-Zahrawi 27th treatise i Tabai Al-Adwiyya and Aghdhiyya. In the same period Arduinis de Passaro produced his book on the nature of poison iber de Venenis, citing the work of Al-Zahrawi numerous occasions. Leclerc summarised the impact of Al-Tasreef admitting: he translation (of Al-Tasreef) played a significant role in the development of Medieval surgery in Europe The book constituted a central part of the medical curriculum in European countries for many centuries .

Sources:

Campell, D. (1974) rabian Medicine and its influence on the Middle Ages, Philo press, Amesterdam. Hamidan Zohir (1993), bu-Al-Qassim Al-Zahrawi ; the Founder of Science of Surgery, in Arabic, Dar Magallat Al-Thaqafa, Damascus. Lecrlerc Lucien (1877), istoire de la Medicine Arabe, Paris, vol.1 p.456. Spink, M. S. and Lewis, G. L. (1973), lbucasis On Surgery and Instruments, The Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, London. Nasr Seyyed Hossein, (1976), slamic Science, World of Islam Festival Publishing Company.

Renaissance and after

In the Renaissance and post-Renaissance era, new instruments were again invented and designed, in order to accompany the increased audacity of surgeons. Amputation sets and specialized instruments such as catlins originated in this period, due to the increased severity of war-inflicted wounds by shot, grapnel and cannon.

However, it was only with the discovery of anesthesia and surgical asepsis that new surgical instruments were invented to allow the penetration of the inner sanctum, or the previously forbidden body cavities, namely the skull, the thorax and the abdomen. A veritable explosion of new tools occurred with the hundreds of new surgical procedures which were developed in the 19th century and first decades of the 20th century. New materials, such as stainless steel, chrome, titanium and vanadium were available for the manufacturing of these instruments. Precision instruments for microsurgery in neurosurgery, ophthalmology and otology were possible and, in the second half of the 20th century, energy-based instruments were first developed, such as electrocauteries, ultrasound and electric scalpels, surgical tools for endoscopic surgery, and finally, surgical robots.

Historically, the development of a surgical instrument follows:

The surgeon uses a common tool and/or adapts it for use in an operation. Some ancient sources of such tools are weapons, butcher's tools, items used in ritual body modification, cannibalism or torture, carpenter's, leather worker's and metal worker's implements. (This process still continues, with tools coming out of automobile shops, aerospace workplaces, kitchens, etc.)

There is a period of transference and incremental improvement, generally focusing on materials, which must be nontoxic and durable. Blood tends to corrode and the repeated washing and sterilization of surgical instruments tends to quickly destroy many materials; other materials hold stains and bacteria.

There is a period of standardization.

However, in modern times, surgeons are also designing instruments from scratch. Also, governmental controls have modified the path of innovation somewhat.

Recent times has seen a move away from reusable instruments to single-use, disposable instruments. Advances in tooling have led to low-cost all-metal tools of similar construction to the permanent version.

See also

Instruments used in general surgery

Medical instruments and implants

Bibliography

Wells, MP, Bradley, M: Surgical Instruments A Pocket Guide. W.B. Saunders, 1998.

Categories: Surgical instruments

Martensite

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For the transformation, see Diffusionless transformations.

Iron alloy phases electric forklift

v  d  e electric pallet jack

Ferrite (-iron, -iron) narrow aisle truck

Austenite (-iron)

Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite)

Bainite

Martensite

Ledeburite (ferrite-cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon)

Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C)

Steel classes

Carbon steel (2.1% carbon; low alloy)

Crucible steel

Alloy steel (contains non-carbon elements)

Maraging steel (contains nickel)

Stainless steel (contains chromium)

Tool steel (alloy steel for tools)

Other iron-based materials

Cast iron (>2.1% carbon)

Ductile iron

Gray iron

Malleable iron

White iron

Wrought iron (contains slag)

Martensite in AISI 4140 steel

0.35%C Steel, water-quenched from 870C

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2009)

Martensite, named after the German metallurgist Adolf Martens (18501914), most commonly refers to a very hard form of steel crystalline structure, but it can also refer to any crystal structure that is formed by displacive transformation. It includes a class of hard minerals occurring as lath- or plate-shaped crystal grains. When viewed in cross-section, the lenticular (lens-shaped) crystal grains appear acicular (needle-shaped), which is how they are sometimes incorrectly described.[vague]

In the 1890s, Martens studied samples of different steels under a microscope, and found that the hardest steels had a regular crystalline structure. He was the first to explain the cause of the widely differing mechanical properties of steels. Martensitic structures have since been found in many other practical materials, including shape memory alloys and transformation-toughened ceramics.

The martensite is formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of austenite which traps carbon atoms that do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal structure. This martensitic reaction begins during cooling when the austenite reaches the martensite start temperature (Ms) and the parent austenite becomes mechanically unstable. At a constant temperature below Ms, a fraction of the parent austenite transforms rapidly, then no further transformation will occur. When the temperature is decreased, more of the austenite transforms to martensite. Finally, when the martensite finish temperature (Mf) is reached, the transformation is complete.

One of the differences between the two phases is that martensite has a body centered tetragonal crystal structure, whereas austenite has a face center cubic (FCC) structure. The transition between these two structures requires very little thermal activation energy because it is a martensitic transformation, which results in the subtle but rapid rearrangement of atomic positions, and has been known to occur even at cryogenic temperatures. Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that the martensitic transformation results in a relative change of volume.

Martensite is not shown in the equilibrium phase diagram of the iron-carbon system because it is a metastable phase, the kinetic product of rapid cooling of steel containing sufficient carbon. Since chemical processes (the attainment of equilibrium) accelerate at higher temperature, martensite is easily destroyed by the application of heat. This process is called tempering. In some alloys, the effect is reduced by adding elements such as tungsten that interfere with cementite nucleation, but, more often than not, the phenomenon is exploited instead. Since quenching can be difficult to control, many steels are quenched to produce an overabundance of martensite, then tempered to gradually reduce its concentration until the right structure for the intended application is achieved. Too much martensite leaves steel brittle, too little leaves it soft.

See also

Eutectoid

Ferrite (iron)

Maraging steel

Spring steel

Tool steel

References

^ Ashby, Michael F.; & David R. H. Jones (1992) . Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-032532-7. 

Categories: Metallurgy | Metals | Ceramics | SteelHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from September 2009 | All articles needing additional references | All Wikipedia articles needing clarification | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2009

Kota

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Kota or KOTA may refer to:

Kota brahmin, a sub-caste of Brahmins in Karnataka. geotextile

The Kota tribe whose members live in the Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu, South India geocell

The Kota language, a Dravidian language spoken in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu geogrid

The Kota (Bakota) tribe whose members live primarily in the northeastern region of Gabon in Central Africa

The Kota (iKota) language, a bantu language of the Bakota people of Gabon

Knights of the Abyss, a deathcore band from Glendale, Arizona.

Kota the triceratops

Kota, or goahti, a native Saami (Lapp) tent, similar to a tipi

Media

KOTA (AM), a radio station (1380 AM) licensed to Rapid City, South Dakota, United States

KOTA-TV, a television station (channel 3 analog/2 digital) licensed to Rapid City, South Dakota, United States

Places

Indonesia

A subdivision unit above subdistrict (kecamatan) and below province. It is equivalent to regency (kabupaten)

Kota, Jakarta, an old area in Jakarta

Kota Gede, Yogyakarta

Malaysia

Kota Kinabalu, the capital of Sabah

Kota, Negeri Sembilan, a small town in Rembau, Negeri Sembilan

India

Kota, Rajasthan, a city in Rajasthan state

Kota District, a district of Rajasthan state

Kota (Lok Sabha constituency), a Lok Sabha parliamentary constituency of Rajasthan

Kota, Karnataka, an area in Karnataka state

Kota, Andhra Pradesh, mandal headquarters in Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh

Kota, Bilaspur, a city in Chhattisgarh

Kota, Uttar Pradesh, a town in Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh.

Japan

Kta, Aichi, a town in Aichi Prefecture

Nepal

Kota, Nepal

Kota, Gandaki

Politics

Association of Timorese Heroes

Names

Kota is one of the Indian surnames.

Kota Srinivasa Rao, is a highly versatile Tollywood actor.

Kota Raghuramaiah

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.

If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories: Disambiguation pages | Malay words and phrases | Indonesian words and phrases | Broadcast call sign disambiguation pagesHidden categories: All article disambiguation pages | All disambiguation pages

Yo Gabba Gabba!

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Overview

Hosted by a character named DJ Lance Rock, the series features a mix of live-action segments featuring cartoonish costumed charactersuno, Foofa, Brobee, Toodee and Plex--and many short animated sketches and musical numbers. "

In its first two seasons, the show featured a wide variety of guests, including Jack Black, Leslie Hall, The Shins, The Aggrolites, Andy Samberg, Cornelius, Biz Markie, Shiny Toy Guns, Supernova, Mark Mothersbaugh, Rahzel, The Postmarks, Sugarland, Tony Hawk, The Roots, Low, Laila Ali, Elijah Wood, Ma, The Salteens, Sean Kingston and series co-creator Jacobs' band, The Aquabats. In the second season bands like Enon, The Clientele, Joy Zipper, Of Montreal, Mates of State, MGMT, and The Ting Tings. toy sword and shield

Among the varied animation sequences during the show is Super Martian Robot Girl by day and by night fantasia at girls girls girls, designed by indie cartoonists Evan Dorkin and Sarah Dyer. bounce ball toy

The show also featured regular use of visuals reminiscent of retro video games and TV shows. cessna 172

The toy models of the characters that appear at the beginning and end of each show were made by Kidrobot.

MP3 demos were available from an official Yo Gabba Gabba site as early as June 2006, before a network had picked up the show.

The world premiere live concert tour of Yo Gabba Gabba took place in Australia in May 2009. DJ Lance Rock, Muno, Foofa, Brobee, Toodee and Plex performed in Melbourne, Brisbane and Sydney with an indie house-band and secret, special guests at each show. The concerts were produced by Australian promoter, Entertainment Store Group.

Taking Back Sunday recently filmed an episode for the upcoming season, as did "Weird Al" Yankovic, The Killers, The Roots, Weezer, and Devo.

Cast

DJ Lance in his Yo Gabba Gabba! outfit posing for a photo with a young fan

DJ Lance Rock - (Lance Robertson)

Muno - Josh Bally / David Crespin (voiced by Adam Deibert)

Foofa - Played and voiced by Emma Jacobs

Brobee - Erin and Tara Pearce (voiced by Amos Watene)

Toodee - Melissa Rossiter / Charme Morales (voiced by Erin Pearce)

Plex - Lindsay Kraus / Justin Cornwall / Amos Watene (voiced by show creator Christian Jacobs)

Alternative Voice Cast

Episodes broadcast in the UK & Ireland on Nick Jr and Channel 4 are overdubbed by a UK English-accented cast, including

DJ Lance Rock - Ortis Deley

Muno - Bob Golding

Foofa - Teresa Gallagher

Brobee/Plex - Simon Feilder

Toodee - Jonell Elliot

Jumba- Adam Olis

Regular segments

Mark's Magic Pictures, featuring Mark Mothersbaugh, drawing simple pictures that often come alive at the end of the segment.

Biz's Beat of the Day, starring Biz Markie, demonstrating new beatboxing beats

The Super Music Friends Show, featuring musical guests

Dancey Dance Time, featuring celebrity guests (which Plex brings down to Gabbaland using his special ray) performing dance moves with the characters

Cool Tricks, in which a child or adult demonstrates a special talent (i.e.gymnastics, breakdancing, playing a theremin or cup stacking)

Storytime, where a child narrates a story (i.e. Goon Fishin, Goodnight Moon')

Super Martian Robot Girl, featuring a helpful comic book-style superhero battling crime.

Learn with Plex, in which Plex teaches basic daily skills like brushing your teeth, going to the bathroom, getting changed, and etc. (saying how they are fun) in songs, using four repeated steps. (It should be noted that each character's solo segment only appears in Season 1.)

Play Pretend with Muno, in which Muno encourages viewers to pretend along with him, as he imagines himself as various creatures and objects.

Listen with Toodee, in which Toodee listens to sounds and she encourages the viewer to help her identify them.

Color with Brobee, in which the viewer guesses what color Brobee is thinking of by the examples he gives.

Play Games with Foofa, in which Foofa solves simple puzzles, such as mind benders, and she encourages the viewer to help her find the solution.

DJ Lance Dance, in which DJ Lance Rock teaches the viewers a different dance.

Funny Faces, in which DJ Lance Rock encourages viewers to make funny faces.

Knock-Knock Joke of the Day, a segment where Jack McBrayer and Paul Scheer tell knock-knock jokes. This segment first appeared in season 2.

Look Back At Today, each episode ends with a music video recap of the episode, featuring awesome effects, and every song featured in that episode. (Season 2 has DJ Lance remembering the things he and the gang did in that episode before the music video starts.)

Jingles, animated music videos featuring music by a guest musician and animation by guest artists, designers, and animators.

Remix, in which DJ. Lance Rock says "let's remember what we did today," followed by a recap of songs and videos from the episode remixed often by a guest DJ.

Broadcasters

Australia

ABC Kids, Nick Jr. (Foxtel and Austar - Pay TV)

Canada

Treehouse TV

Latin America

Playhouse Disney Channel

United States

Nick Jr., HBO Family, Playhouse Disney

United Kingdom & Ireland

Nick Jr., Channel 4

The Netherlands

Jetix Play

Asia

Nickelodeon South East Asia (As part of the Nick Jr. line up as there is no separate Nick Jr. channel in the region)

Italy

Nick Jr.

Israel

Hop!

New Zealand

Channel 2 (TV2), Nick Jr. (Sky TV - Pay TV)

DVDs

DVD

Airdate

Episodes

Germs

December 11, 2009

Scary

Fun

Halloween

Green

Band

Family

Eat

Characters

DJ Lance - A male DJ with an Inhabitat of Gabbaland case, also a narrator and a friend.

Muno - A male red one-eyed cyclops who's friendly and first appeared in "Play". He's the tallest and is somewhat clumsy (which in one case, was much to Toodee's chagrin) and he has a close bond with Foofa. He is also the band's guitarist. In 'Family' his family makes an appearance. He is also featured in the Kia Sorento "Joyride" commercial.

Foofa - A female flower bubble character who's pink and happy and first appeared in "Play". She loves rainbows and unicorns and can play the tambourine.

Brobee - A little male green monster character who first appeared in "Play". He is curious and in one episode, he is tired of being short. Plex accidentally makes Brobee DJ Lance-size and Brobee soon finds that being big isn't very fun for him. He is the drummer for the Gabba band. He is also, apart from Gooble, the only character who is able to frown.

Toodee - A blue female cat-dragon character who likes to have fun; she first appeared in "Play". She has a close bond with Brobee and plays the bass guitar for the Gabba band.

Plex - A yellow male robot fellow who first appeared in "Play". He is really smart and usually gives the lessons to his friends and is a fatherly-figure to the gang. He can play the keytar.

Gooble - An unhappy creature similar to Muno who first appeared in "Happy" for the Super Music Friends Show. He cries all of the time.

Foofle - A blue character who was first introduced in "Mystery" as Foofa's older brother. He is an avid surfer and spends most of his time at a beach.

One time characters

Muno's Parents - Muno's parents now appear in 'Family'. His father likes computers and cowboy movies. His mother likes dogs and Chinese noodles which is maybe why Muno likes noodles. Muno's father is darker red than Muno but has a mustache and a hat. His mother has blue hair and no bumps (same as the other girls in Muno's family).

Cheebo - Muno's older sister who likes school and baby owls since they are cute. She is pink and wears a blue winter hat. She looks like her mom because she has no bumps.

GoGo - Muno's baby brother. He is almost a younger version of Muno because he has Muno's bumps and is orange. GoGo likes being happy and is almost always seen in his carriage.

Kemba - A female DJ who is DJ Lance's younger sister that appears in 'Family.' She wears orange like DJ Lance and likes the Super Music Friends Show.

Episodes

Pilots: 2006

#

Title

Airdate

Guests

Remix

Jingle

P2

Short Story

January 1, 2006

Biz Markie

Paul Frank's Julius The Monkey dances with cast

Digital Unicorn

"Please, Thank You" by Parker Jacobs

Music by Chad VanGaalen

P1

Play

December 30, 2006

Biz Markie

Ashley 1st

Lance Robertson

Music by Chad VanGaalen

"La La Doodles" by Lifelong Friendship Society

Season 1 : August 20, 2007-September 21, 2008

#

Title

Airdate

Guests

Remix

Jingle

Story Time

1

Eat

August 20, 2007

Elijah Wood - "The Puppet Master" (Dancey Dance - "The Puppet Master")

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Digital Unicorn

"Be Nice To Animals"

Animation by Kangaroo Alliance

Music Performed by The Salteens

"Goon Fishin"

Animation by Parker Jacobs and Kris Boban

Music by Parker Jacobs and Gail Hill

2

Summer (similar to "Swim")

August 21, 2007

The Aquabats - "Pool Party!"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Adrian Turner (Cool Tricks - Cup stacking)

Broken Spindles

"This Is What The Summer Brings"

Animation by Joel Trussell

Music Performed by Tony Goddess & The Silver Lining

Super Martian Robot Girl

"Jumbo Shrimp"

3

Fun

August 22, 2007

The Aggrolites - "Banana"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Kirsten Dorn (Cool Tricks - Gymnastics)

Sukho Lee

"Listen"

Animation by Lori D

Music Performed by Paco

"Toot Your Own Horn"

Animation by Parker Jacobs and Kris Boban

Music by Parker Jacobs

4

Dance

August 23, 2007

Hctor Jimnez (Dancey Dance)

Yuko Araki (Drums)

John and Sean Scott

(Cool Tricks - Tap dancing)

Ricky Fitness

"Dancin' Fun"

Animation by Hobo Divine

Music Performed by Sizzle Me This

Super Martian Robot Girl

"Dance Party"

5

Sleep

August 27, 2007

Smoosh - "Pajama Party Time"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

DJ Nobody

There is an animated character that appears in the characters dreams

"Bedtime Lullabye"

Animation by Lippy

Music Performed by Mark Kozelek

Moochy and Pooty

"Monster Truck"

Music by Scott Bucsis

6

Happy

August 28, 2007

The Salteens and Gooble- "I'm So Happy I Can Dance"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Sukho Lee (Cool Tricks - playing a theremin)

Adventure Time

"Kites Are Fun"

Animation by Nick Cross

Music Performed by The Parallelograms

(Originally by The Free Design)

Super Martian Robot Girl

"Where's My Mama?"

7

Friends

August 29, 2007

Ma (Dancey Dance - "Peanut Butter Stomp")

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Marshall Hough

(Cool Tricks- Hanging a spoon from his nose)

Otis Fodder

"Share"

Animation by The Unibros

Music Performed by The Aquabats

"Faldarz and the Yellow Alien"

by The Brothers Chaps

8

Careful

August 30, 2007

Supernova - "Up & Down"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Evan Wasser (Counting Segment: "Skatin'")

Frequent Flyer

feat. Ricky Fitness

"Family Tree"

Animation by Mumbleboy

Music performed by Low

Moochy and Pooty

"Gettin' Messy"

Counting Segment: Skatin'

Animated and directed by Scott Windes

9

Move

September 24, 2007

Tony Hawk (Dancey Dance)

Ricky Fitness (Drums)

Venom Break Dancers (Cool Tricks)

Weird Science

"Pick It Up" by Parker Jacobs

Animation by Willy Heartland and Craig Patches

Music Performed by GOGO13 featuring Alex Desert of Hepcat

"Bruce The Moose"

Animated by Wild Brain

10

Greetings

September 25, 2007

The Wolfgramms - "YGG Medley"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

La Casa Azul

"Hello, Goodbye"

Animation by Aaron Stewart

Music performed by I'kona

"Please, Thank You"

by Parker Jacobs

Music by GOGO13

Animation by Tyler Jacobs

Super Martian Robot Girl

"Do You Like My Haircut?"

11

Together

September 26, 2007

Nikki Flores (Dancey Dance)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Mark DeNardo

"Love Every Living Thing"

Animation by Joel Trussell

Music performed by Call Sound Call Noise

Super Martian Robot Girl

"Dance of the Cobra Man"

12

Scary

September 27, 2007

Leslie Hall, DJ Dr. Laura and the Junior Gems (Dancey Dance)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Adam Deibert (Cool Tricks - Playing Twinkle Twinkle Little Star with his hands)

Turbo Funky

"Shapes"

Animation by Ben Jones and Jacob Ciocci of Paper Rad

Music performed by Frequent Flyer

N/a

13

Halloween

October 29, 2007

Shiny Toy Guns

(aka "The Shinys")

Rebecca Gallo (Cool Tricks - Taekwondo)

DJ Sifa

"It's Halloween"

Animation by Kluncklick

Music performed by I Monster with vocals by Philly

Super Martian Robot Girl

"Be Good Big Kitty"

14

Car

November 26, 2007

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Sugarland (Dancey Dance)

Ian Fowles from The Aquabats & Jodey Lawrence from Supernova (Cool Tricks - Playing Guitar)

Mouse on Mars

"Look Both Ways"

Animation by Arthur Jones

Music by The Aggrolites

"Naughty Gordie" by Kristin Arnold

Animated by Parker Jacobs and Kris Boban

15

Share

November 27, 2007

Cornelius "Count Five or Six"

(Super Music Friends Show)

Ann Shenton

"Sometimes You Win"

Designed and Directed, and Animated by Justin Fines @ DEMO

Music performed by Dean and Britta

Super Martian Robot Girl "Sounds of the Dolphin"

16

Find

November 28, 2007

Sean Kingston (Dancey Dance)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Rahzel (Cool Tricks - Beatboxing)

Languis

"Hey, Won't Somebody Come and Play"

Animation by Jesse Ledoux and PUNY Music

Performed by The Little Ones

Super Martian Robot Girl "Funny Bunny"

17

Train

November 29, 2007

Laila Ali (Dancey Dance)

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Twink

"Train Ride"

Animation by PandaPanther

Music performed by Tahiti 80

Moochy and Pooty

"Up Down"

18

Christmas

December 21, 2007 (premiere)

December 25, 2007

The Snow Princess (Dancey Dance)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Mike Relm

"Christmas Time"

Animation by Agency Collective

Music performed by Jason Lytle

"Santa's Helpers"

by Parker Jacobs; Illustrated by Wildbrain

19

Love

February 14, 2008

The Postmarks (Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Alex Knost (Counting Segment: "Surfing")

The Salteens

Designed by Chris McD

"I Found Love"

Animation by Bran Dougherty-Johnson

Music performed by Trembling Blue Stars

(Originally by The Free Design)

"Alfcore"

Animation by Kangaroo Alliance

Narrated by Penelope Jacobs

Counting Segment: Surfing

Written by Tiffany and Thomas Campbell

Music by Frequent Flyer

20

Imagine

May 23, 2008

The Shins (Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Alex Knost (Counting Segment: "Surfing, Part 2")

Majestic

"Some Things Are Big, Some Things Are Small"

Animation by Christopher Palazzo

Music performed by Jason Falkner

Charlie C

Written by Shanna Jacobs

Animation by Joel Trussell

Counting Segment:

Surfing, Part 2

Written by Tiffany and Thomas Campbell

Directed and photographed by Thomas Campbell

Season 2 : September 22, 2008 - February 1, 2010

#

Title

Airdate

Guests

Remix

Jingle

Story Time

21

Birthday

September 22, 2008

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Melora Hardin (Dancey Dance)

Parker Jacobs (Cool Tricks - Baking special birthday cakes)

The Ting Tings "Happy Birthday" (Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Mothersbaugh (appears during Brobee's birthday party)

Tyger Ryder

"Birthday Song"

Animation by CUPCO!

Music Performed by Tyger Ryder

22

Games

September 23, 2008

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Jaclyn Parls Jacobs (Cool Tricks - Playing the recorder through her nose)

Mates of State "No One Wants To Be Left Out" (Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Denardo

"Come & Play"

Animation by Merijn Hos & Jurriaan Hos

Music Performed by The Clientele

"Bayou Boat Race"

Animation by I am 8-bit

23

Talent

September 24, 2008

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Hot Hot Heat "Time To Go Outdoors" (Super Music Friends Show)

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Amar'e Stoudemire (Dancey Dance/playing basketball)

Logan Knight (Cool Tricks - the belly roll)

The Parallelograms

"What Are Your Talents?"

Directed by Kristofer Strm

Animation by Eric Buchholtz, Viggo Mrck, and Nicolas Wakeham (producer)

Music Performed by Joy Zipper

24

Animals

September 25, 2008

Jack McBrayer and Paul Scheer (Knock-Knock Joke of the Day - "Interrupting Cow")

Jimmy Eat World "Beautiful Day" (Super Music Friends Show)

Tommie Sunshine

"Animal Sounds"

Animation by Overture

Music Performed by The Aggrolites

"Cammy, Jenny, & Slater"

Directed by Chris Eliopoulo

Animation by Nate Miller

Written by Tiffany Campbell

Numbers Segment: "Counting Birds"

Directed by Joel Fox and Christian Jacobs

25

Weather

October 20, 2008

Jack McBrayer and Paul Scheer (Knock-Knock Joke of the Day - "Can I Come in?")

Paul Williams "Rainbow Connection" (Super Music Friends Show)

Tyger Ryder

"I Love The Rain"

Animation by Andreas Nilsson

Music Performed by Frequent Flyer

"Water Drops & Oil"

Directed by King Mini

Animation by PUNY

Numbers - A Day In The Park

Directed by Scott Schultz, produced by Nate Rogers

26

Differences

October 21, 2008

I'm From Barcelona "Just Because It's Different Doesn't Mean It's Scary" (Super Music Friends Show)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures - Drawing a carrot)

With guest star Leslie Hall

Guilie Milkyway

"Glasses"

Animation by Augenblick Studios Inc

Music Performed by I'Kona

"Argyle the Octopus"

Written and directed by Colt Bowden

Animation by Keri Rainock

Narration by Ollie Shultz

Numbers - Love Me

Produced by Nate Rogers

27

Robot

October 22, 2008

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Rhys Darby (Cool Tricks - Pretending to be a Robot)

Money Mark "Robodancing" (Super Music Friends Show)

Blake Miller

"We Are The Robots"

Animation by Mixtape Club

Music Performed by Enon

"Prof. Whizbang and Robot Planet"

Directed by Nawoki and Yoshiko Karasawa

Animation by Asahi Production Co.

Narrated by Brandt Bucher

28

Teeth

October 23, 2008

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures - drawing a tooth)

Amy Sedaris (Tooth fairy)

Datarock "Smile For The Camera" (Super Music Friends Show)

Shannon Edwards and Strawberry the donkey (Cool Tricks - Making Strawberry smile)

Twink

"Brush Brush Brush"

Animation by Kangaroo Alliance

Music Performed by of Montreal

"The Alligator & the Tiny Ugly Cavities"

Directed by Parker Jacobs

Animation by PUNY

29

Clean

February 27, 2009

Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson and Frankie "Knuckles" Walker of The Roots- playing snare drums and percussion

Chromeo "Nice 'n' Clean" (Super Music Friends Show)

Rachel Dratch (Dancey Dance Time - "The Groovy Cat")

Tyger Ryder featuring DJ Game Kid

"Cover Your Mouth"

Animation by Augenblick Studios

Music Performed by The Bird and the Bee

Numbers: "Happy Computer"

Directed by Christian Jacobs and Joel Fox

30

New Friends

April 3, 2009

Jack Black (singing "It's Not Fun to Get Lost", "Friends" and "Goodbye Song") (Dancey Dance Time - "The Disco Roll") and Rob Schrab (voice of Jack Black's mini-bike)

The Yo-Dazzlers "You Can't Always Get What You Want" (Super Music Friends Show)

Jack McBrayer & Paul Scheer (Knock-Knock Joke of the Day - "Cargo")

Cowboy Fleuesmith featuring Tyger Ryder

"In a Safe Land"

Animation by Tanya Haden

Music by Tanya Haden and Petra Haden "

31

Green

April 22, 2009

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Sal Masekela "Hello World" (Super Music Friends Show)

"Fruit Song"

Animation by Buddy System Studios

Directed by John Harvatine IV

Music by YMCK

"Coudie The Cloud"

Animation by Augenblick Studios

32

Family

October 12, 2009

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Kemba Russell (DJ Lance Rock's sister)

The Roots "Lovely, Love My Family" (Super Music Friends Show)

Emilee Ann, Jakob and Jeremy Keppelmann (Cool Tricks - playing music together as a family)

Mark Mothersbaugh

Mark Denardo

"That's My Family"

Animation by Joel Trussell

Music by Apples in Stereo

33

Art

October 13, 2009

Andy Samberg(Dancey Dance)

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Ray Barbee(Cool Trick)

MGMT rt is Everywhere (Super Music Friends Show)

34

Boat

October 14, 2009

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Reeve Oliver Like Sandwiches (Super Music Friends Show)"In the Ocean" (Mason Jennings)

35

Band

October 15, 2009

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Lady Tigra "When I Hear Music" (Super Music Friends Show)

"Patience"

"Ollie The Musician"

36

Dress Up

October 16, 2009

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

The Little Ones et's Dress Up" (Super Music Friends Show)

37

Big

October 16, 2009

Mark Mothersbaugh (Mark's Magic Pictures)

Gumpelstiltskin (Cool Tricks)

Jem & The Yo Dazzlers (Super Music Friends Show)

Rafter

"Grow"

Animation by Darin Bendall

Music by Rafter

"Sprinkles & The Bake Off"

Animation by Sean Dicken and Gooby Herms

Written & Directed by Evan Dorkin and Sarah Dyer

Narration by Alex Arnold

38

Mystery

February 1, 2010

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Jack McBrayer & Paul Scheer (Knock-Knock Joke of the Day)

Ladytron (Super Music Friends Show)

Ursula 1000

"Some Things Are A Mystery"

Animation by PUNY

Music by Autolux

39

Space

February 8, 2010

Biz Markie (Biz's Beat of the Day)

Jack McBrayer & Paul Scheer (Knock-Knock Joke of the Day-Cindy)

Enon (Super Music Friends Show)

Clownma

"Deep in Space"

Animation by Widlbrain

Director Unknown

"Space Man Sam"

Animation by 394

40

Ride

Un-aired in the USA

Available on DVD

Season 3 : June 18, 2010 - present

Currently in Post Production

#

Title

Airdate

Guests

Remix

Jingle

Story Time

TBA

Circus

March 8, 2010

TBA

TBA

TBA

TBA

Critical reception

Nominated for a Daytime Emmy in both 2008 and 2009 for Best Costume Design.

Time magazine's James Poniewozik named Yo Gabba Gabba! one of the Top 10 new TV series of 2007, ranking it at #8.

In November 2008, Yo Gabba Gabba! won a BAFTA Children's Award, International.

The show has also become popular among some college age students because of the independent artists often featured.

References

^ "Nick Jr. Greenlights Second Season of Yo Gabba Gabba! and Orders 20 New Episodes of Critically Acclaimed Live-Action Preschool Music Series", PR Newswire, 18 December 2007

^ "The National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Announces 35th Annual Daytime Entertainment Emmy Award Nominations", 30 April 2008

^ 'Yo Gabba Gabba' is monstrous fun for kids, adults USA Today, 2008-10-21.

^ Garofoli, Joe: "Preschooler TV goes hip with 'Yo Gabba Gabba'", San Francisco Chronicle, 17 August 2007

^ evandorkin: The Last Round-Up (Pre-TCAF)

^ http://www.ocregister.com/entertainment/says-219242-gabba-live.html

^ Dollar, Steve: "Gimme Gimme Gabba Gabba", Print, September/October 2007

^ "Yo Gabba Gabba!" (2007) - Episode List, IMDb.com. Retrieved on 2009-06-23.

^ Yo Gabba Gabba! Episodes, TVGuide.com. Retrieved on 2009-06-22.

^ New York Magazine - Elijah Wood Does the Puppet Master

^ "Nick Jr. Begins Production on Season Two of Acclaimed Live-Action Preschool Music Series Yo Gabba Gabba!, Produced by the Magic Store and W!LDBRAIN, Beginning Monday, May 12", PR Newswire, 28 April 2008

^ Poniewozik, James: "Top 10 New TV Series", Time, 2007

^ BAFTA Children's Awards Winners "", BAFTA, 2008

^ Friedman, Emily "Nickelodeon Cartoon Draws Unusual Fans", ABC News, May 7, 2008

External links

Official website (Flash-enabled browser required)

Nick Jr. Yo Gabba Gabba Website

Yo Gabba Gabba! on Myspace

Yo Gabba Gabba! at the Internet Movie Database

Yo Gabba Gabba! at TV.com

Gabbaland.com - Yo Gabba Gabba (unofficial) forum

Gabbafriends.com - Yo Gabba Gabba (unofficial) fansite

v  d  e

Nick Jr.

19891995

Eureeka's Castle (1989) Gullah Gullah Island (1994) Allegra's Window (1994) Little Bear (1995)

19962000

The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss (1996) Blue's Clues (1996) Franklin (1997) Little Bill (1999) Dora the Explorer (2000) Maggie and the Ferocious Beast (2000)

20012005

Oswald (2001) 64 Zoo Lane (2001) Max & Ruby (2002) Maisy Mouse (2002) Oobi (2003) The Backyardigans (2004) LazyTown (2004) Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Friends (2004) Blue's Room (2004) Pinky Dinky Doo (2005) Go, Diego, Go! (2005) Jack's Big Music Show (2005)

20062010

The Upside Down Show (2006) Wonder Pets (2006) Toot & Puddle (2006) Wow! Wow! Wubbzy! (2006) Yo Gabba Gabba! (2007) Ni Hao, Kai-Lan (2008) Olivia (2009) The Fresh Beat Band (2009) Team Umizoomi (2010)

Future

Dino Dan (2010) Bubble Guppies (2010)

International channels

United States Australia Italy UK & Ireland UK & Ireland (2)

See also

Noggin Nick Jr. on CBS Nickelodeon

v  d  e

The Aquabats

The MC Bat Commander  Crash McLarson  Jimmy the Robot  Ricky Fitness  Eagle "Bones" Falconhawk

Prince Adam  Ultra Kyu  Chainsaw the Prince of Karate  The Baron von Tito

Studio albums

The Return of the Aquabats  The Fury of the Aquabats!  The Aquabats vs. the Floating Eye of Death!  Charge!!

EPs

Yo! Check Out This Ride! EP

Compilation albums

Myths, Legends, and Other Amazing Adventures, Vol. 2

Video albums

Serious Awesomeness!

Related articles

Nitro Records  Welcome to Eltingville  Yo Gabba Gabba!

Categories: American children's television series | Live-action/animated television series | 2000s American television series | 2007 American television series debuts | Nick Jr. shows | HBO network shows | Programs broadcast by Treehouse TV

Flash evaporation

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Flash evaporation of a single-component liquid

The flash evaporation of a single-component liquid is an isentropic (i.e., constant entropy) process and is often referred to as an adiabatic flash. The following equation, derived from a simple heat balance around the throttling valve or device, is used to predict how much of a single-component liquid is vaporized.

X = 100 ( HuL HdL ) ( HdV HdL ) air filter honeywell

where: humidifier filters

  hunter air purifier filter

X

=  weight percent vaporized

HuL

=  upstream liquid enthalpy at upstream temperature and pressure, J/kg

HdV

 

=  flashed vapor enthalpy at downstream pressure and corresponding saturation

    temperature, J/kg

HdL

 

=  residual liquid enthalpy at downstream pressure and corresponding saturation

    temperature, J/kg

If the enthalpy data required for the above equation is unavailable, then the following equation may be used.

X = 100 cp ( Tu Td ) Hv

where:

 

X

=  weight percent vaporized

cp

=  liquid specific heat at upstream temperature and pressure, J/(kg C)

Tu

=  upstream liquid temperature, C

Td

=  liquid saturation temperature corresponding to the downstream pressure, C

Hv

 

=  liquid heat of vaporization at downstream pressure and corresponding saturation

    temperature, J/kg

( Note: The words "upstream" and "downstream" refer to before and after the liquid passes through the throttling valve or device.)

This type of flash evaporation is used in the desalination of brackish water or ocean water by "Multi-Stage Flash Distillation." The water is heated and then routed into a reduced-pressure flash evaporation "stage" where some of the water flashes into steam. This steam is subsequently condensed into salt-free water. The residual salty liquid from that first stage is introduced into a second flash evaporation stage at a pressure lower than the first stage pressure. More water is flashed into steam which is also subsequently condensed into more salt-free water. This sequential use of multiple flash evaporation stages is continued until the design objectives of the system are met. A large part of the world's installed desalination capacity uses multi-stage flash distillation. Typically such plants have 24 or more sequential stages of flash evaporation.

Equilibrium flash of a multi-component liquid

The equilibrium flash of a multi-component liquid may be visualized as a simple distillation process using a single equilibrium stage. It is very different and more complex than the flash evaporation of single-component liquid. For a multi-component liquid, calculating the amounts of flashed vapor and residual liquid in equilibrium with each other at a given temperature and pressure requires a trial-and-error iterative solution. Such a calculation is commonly referred to as an equilibrium flash calculation. It involves solving the Rachford-Rice equation:

where:

zi is the mole fraction of component i in the feed liquid (assumed to be known);

is the fraction of feed that is vaporised;

Ki is the equilibrium constant of component i.

The equilibrium constants Ki are in general functions of many parameters, though the most important is arguably temperature; they are defined as:

where:

xi is the mole fraction of component i in liquid phase;

yi is the mole fraction of component i in gas phase.

Once the Rachford-Rice equation has been solved for , the compositions xi and yi can be immediately calculated as:

The Rachford-Rice equation can have multiple solutions for , at most one of which guarantees that all xi and yi will be positive. In particular, if there is only one for which:

then that is the solution; if there are multiple such 's, it means that either Kmax<1 or Kmin>1, indicating respectively that no gas phase can be sustained (and therefore =0) or conversely that no liquid phase can exist (and therefore =1).

It is possible to use Newton's method for solving the above water equation, but there is a risk of converging to the wrong value of ; it is important to initialise the solver to a sensible initial value, such as (max+min)/2 (which is however not sufficient: Newton's method makes no guarantees on stability), or, alternatively, use a bracketing solver such as the bisection method or the Brent method, which are guaranteed to converge but can be slower.

The equilibrium flash of multi-component liquids is very widely utilized in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.

Contrast with spray drying

Spray drying is sometimes seen a form of flash evaporation. However, although it is a form of liquid evaporation, it is quite different from flash evaporation.

In spray drying, a slurry of very small solids is rapidly dried by suspension in a liquid. The slurry is first atomized into very small liquid droplets which are then sprayed into a stream of hot dry air. The liquid rapidly evaporates leaving behind dry powder or dry solid granules. The dry powder or solid granules are recovered from the exhaust air by using cyclones, bag filters or electrostatic precipitators.

See also

Evaporator

Vapor-liquid separator

References

^ Curtis H. Whitson, Michael L. Michelsen, The Negative Flash, Fluid Phase Equilibria, 53 (1989) 5171.

External links

Vapor and Flash Steam Animation, photos and technical explanation of the difference between Flash Steam and Vapor.

Flash Steam Tutorial The benefits of recovering flash steam, how it is done and typical applications.

Water Desalination Technologies in the Middle East and Western Asia

Discussion of spray drying

Flash evaporation program online Flash distillation of the hydrocarbon compounds.

Online flash calculations

Categories: Chemical processes | Fluid dynamics | Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning | Thermodynamics | Unit operations

Chocolate

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Etymology

The word "chocolate" entered the English language from Spanish. How the word came into Spanish is less certain, and there are multiple competing explanations. Perhaps the most cited explanation is that "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, from the word "chocolatl", which many sources derived from the Nahuatl word "xocolatl" made up from the words "xococ" meaning sour or bitter, and "atl" meaning water or drink. However, as William Bright noted the word "chocolatl" doesn't occur in central Mexican colonial sources making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria gives a derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl" meaning water. More recently Dakin and Wichmann derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from Eastern Nahuatl meaning "beaten drink". They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli".

History ground venison

The word "chocolate" originates in Mexico's Aztec cuisine, derived from the Nahuatl word xocolatl. popcorn popper

See also: History of chocolate pure cocoa powder

Theobroma cacao, native to Mexico, Central and South America, has been cultivated for at least three millennia in that region. Cocoa mass was used originally in Mesoamerica both as a beverage and as an ingredient in foods.

Chocolate has been used as a drink for nearly all of its history. The earliest record of using chocolate dates back before the Olmec. In November 2007, archaeologists reported finding evidence of the oldest known cultivation and use of cacao at a site in Puerto Escondido, Honduras, dating from about 1100 to 1400 BC. The residues found and the kind of vessel they were found in indicate that the initial use of cacao was not simply as a beverage, but the white pulp around the cacao beans was likely used as a source of fermentable sugars for an alcoholic drink. The Maya civilization grew cacao trees in their backyard, and used the cacao seeds it produced to make a frothy, bitter drink. Documents in Maya hieroglyphs stated that chocolate was used for ceremonial purposes, in addition to everyday life. The chocolate residue found in an early ancient Maya pot in Ro Azul, Guatemala, suggests that Maya were drinking chocolate around 400 AD. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter, spicy drink called xocoatl, and was often flavored with vanilla, chili pepper, and achiote (known today as annatto). Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine content. Chocolate was also an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cacao beans were often used as currency. For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost one hundred cacao beans and one fresh avocado was worth three beans. South American and European cultures have used cocoa to treat diarrhea for hundreds of years. All of the areas that were conquered by the Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax, or as the Aztecs called it, a "tribute".

Until the 16th century, no European had ever heard of the popular drink from the Central and South American peoples. It was not until the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs that chocolate could be imported to Europe. In Spain it quickly became a court favorite. In a century it had spread and become popular throughout the European continent To keep up with the high demand for this new drink, Spanish armies began enslaving Mesoamericans to produce cacao. Even with cacao harvesting becoming a regular business, only royalty and the well-connected could afford to drink this expensive import. Before long, the Spanish began growing cacao beans on plantations, and using an African workforce to help manage them. The situation was different in England. Put simply, anyone with money could buy it. The first chocolate house opened in London in 1657. In 1689, noted physician and collector Hans Sloane developed a milk chocolate drink in Jamaica which was initially used by apothecaries, but later sold to the Cadbury brothers in 1897.

For hundreds of years, the chocolate making process remained unchanged. When the people saw the Industrial Revolution arrive, many changes occurred that brought about the food today in its modern form. A Dutch family's (van Houten) inventions made mass production of shiny, tasty chocolate bars and related products possible. In the 1700s, mechanical mills were created that squeezed out cocoa butter, which in turn helped to create hard, durable chocolate. But, it was not until the arrival of the Industrial Revolution that these mills were put to bigger use. Not long after the revolution cooled down, companies began advertising this new invention to sell many of the chocolate treats we see today. When new machines were produced, people began experiencing and consuming chocolate worldwide.

Types

Main article: Types of chocolate

A half beat of milk chocolate with salmiak filling by Fazer

Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. "White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have some physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain. Dark chocolate has been promoted[who?] for its health benefits, as it seems to possess substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals.

White chocolate is formed from a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter and milk solids. Although its texture is similar to milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain any cocoa solids. Because of this, many countries do not consider white chocolate as chocolate at all. Although first introduced by Hebert Candies in 1955, Mars, Incorporated was the first to produce white chocolate within the United States. Because it does not contain any cocoa solids, white chocolate does not contain any theobromine, meaning it can be consumed by animals.

Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture. The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids. Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source of the flavonoids epicatechin and gallic acid, which are thought to possess cardioprotective properties. Dark chocolate has also been said to reduce the possibility of a heart attack when consumed regularly in small amounts. Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with a low sugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor to which some sugar (typically a third), more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin have been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking.

Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavor.

Production

See also: Children in cocoa production

Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening

Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with 43% sourced from Cte d'Ivoire, where child labor is a common practice to obtain the product. See the Wikipedia article children in cocoa production for a description of this problem and proposed solutions. According to the World Cocoa Foundation, some 50 million people around the world depend on cocoa as a source of livelihood. In the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their own design. Despite some disagreement in the EU about the definition,[clarification needed] chocolate is any product made primarily of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solid content or by substituting cocoa butter with another fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be called "chocolate", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops.

There are two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy, chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cacao beans and other ingredients to produce couverture chocolate. Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars, truffles, etc.).

Cacao varieties

Chocolate Cream

Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20 degrees of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 millimeters of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21 to 32 degrees Celsius. Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit).

The three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolate are criollo, forastero and trinitario.

Representing only five percent of all cocoa beans grown, criollo is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market and is native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states. There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, as most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are particularly difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a variety of environmental threats and produce low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is described as delicate yet complex, low in classic chocolate flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration.

The most commonly grown bean is forastero, a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, most likely native to the Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. The source of most chocolate marketed, forastero cocoas are typically strong in classic "chocolate" flavor, but have a short duration and are unsupported by secondary flavors, producing "quite bland" chocolate.

Trinitario is a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero. Trinitario originated in Trinidad after an introduction of Forastero to the local Criollo crop. Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties.

Processing

Cacao pods are harvested by cutting the pods from the tree using a machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. The beans with their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins to ferment. The fermentation process is what gives the beans their familiar chocolate taste. It is important to harvest the pods when they are fully ripe because if the pod is unripe, the beans will have a low cocoa butter content, or there will be insufficient sugars in the white pulp for fermentation, resulting in a weak flavor. After fermentation, the beans must be quickly dried to prevent mold growth. Climate and weather permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun from 5 to 7 days.

The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing facility. The beans are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next the shells are removed to extract the nib. Finally, the nibs are ground and liquefied, resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor. The liquor can be further processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

Blending

Main article: Types of chocolate

Chocolate made with enough cocoa butter flows gently over a chocolate fountain to serve dessert fondue.

Chocolate Melanger

Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couvertures. The basic blends of ingredients for the various types of chocolate (in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are as follows:

Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla

Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla

White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla

Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soy lecithin is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO free, sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. Some manufacturers are now using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining the same mouthfeel.

The texture is also heavily influenced by processing, specifically conching (see below). The more expensive chocolate tends to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and "feel" on the tongue, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.

Different manufacturers develop their own "signature" blends based on the above formulas, but varying proportions of the different constituents are used.

The finest, plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (both solids and butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 35% cocoa.

Producers of high quality, small batch chocolate argue that mass production produces bad quality chocolate. Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Vegetable oils and artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorly fermented and/or roasted beans.

In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association in the United States, whose members include Hershey, Nestl, and Archer Daniels Midland, lobbied the Food and Drug Administration to change the legal definition of chocolate to let them substitute partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter in addition to using artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes. Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate" if the product contains any of these ingredients.

Conching

Various chocolate-making machinery

Main article: Conching

The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 4550 C (113122 F) until final processing.

Tempering

The final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.

The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous crystallization). The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best form is present. The six different crystal forms have different properties.

Crystal

Melting temp.

Notes

I

17 C (63 F)

Soft, crumbly, melts too easily.

II

21 C (70 F)

Soft, crumbly, melts too easily.

III

26 C (79 F)

Firm, poor snap, melts too easily.

IV

28 C (82 F)

Firm, good snap, melts too easily.

V

34 C (93 F)

Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37 C).

VI

36 C (97 F)

Hard, takes weeks to form.

Making chocolate considered "good" is about forming as many type V crystals as possible. This provides the best appearance and texture and creates the most stable crystals so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this, the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.

Generally, the chocolate is first heated to 45 C (113 F) to melt all six forms of crystals. Next, the chocolate is cooled to about 27 C (81 F), which will allow crystal types IV and V to form. At this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small crystal "seeds" which will serve as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The chocolate is then heated to about 31 C (88 F) to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving just type V. After this point, any excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this process will have to be repeated. However, there are other methods of chocolate tempering used. The most common variant is introducing already tempered, solid "seed" chocolate. The temper of chocolate can be measured with a chocolate temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency. A sample cup is filled with the chocolate and placed in the unit which then displays or prints the results.

Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:

Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature.

Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to "inoculate" the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses the already formed crystal of the solid chocolate to "seed" the molten chocolate).

Chocolate tempering machines (or temperers) with computer controls can be used for producing consistently tempered chocolate, particularly for large volume applications.

Storage

Molten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate bar

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 C (59 and 63 F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and temperature. Additionally chocolate is frequently stored in a dark place or protected from light by wrapping paper. Various types of "blooming" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Moving chocolate from one temperature extreme to another, such as from a refrigerator on a hot day, can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is perfectly safe for consumption.

Health

This section needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Health and fitness or the Health and fitness Portal may be able to help recruit an expert. (May 2009)

Overview of the main health effects attributed to chocolate.

While chocolate is regularly eaten for pleasure, there are potential beneficial health effects of eating chocolate. Cocoa or dark chocolate benefits the circulatory system. Other beneficial effects suggested include anticancer, brain stimulator, cough preventor and antidiarrhoeal effects. An aphrodisiac effect is yet unproven.

On the other hand, the unconstrained consumption of large quantities of any energy-rich food such as chocolate is thought to increase the risk of obesity without a corresponding increase in activity. Raw chocolate is high in cocoa butter, a fat which is removed during chocolate refining, then added back in in varying proportions during the manufacturing process. Manufacturers may add other fats, sugars, and milk as well, all of which increase the caloric content of chocolate.

There is concern of mild lead poisoning for some types of chocolate. Chocolate is toxic to many animals because of insufficient capacity to metabolize theobromine.

A study reported by the BBC indicated that melting chocolate in one's mouth produced an increase in brain activity and heart rate that was more intense than that associated with passionate kissing, and also lasted four times as long after the activity had ended.

Circulatory benefits

Recent studies have suggested that cocoa or dark chocolate may possess certain beneficial effects on human health. This is mainly caused by a particular substance present in cocoa called epicatechin. Cocoa possesses a significant antioxidant action, protecting against LDL oxidation, perhaps more than other polyphenol antioxidant-rich foods and beverages. Some studies have also observed a modest reduction in blood pressure and flow-mediated dilation after consuming dark chocolate daily. Consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking fat-containing milk with dark chocolate, appears largely to negate the health benefit. Processed cocoa powder (so called Dutch chocolate), processed with alkali greatly reduces the antioxidant capacity as compared to "raw" cocoa powder. Processing cocoa with alkali destroys most of the flavonoids.

One-third of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a saturated fat called stearic acid and a monounsaturated fat called oleic acid. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Consuming relatively large amounts of dark chocolate and cocoa does not seem to raise serum LDL cholesterol levels; some studies even find that it could lower them. Indeed, small but regular amounts of dark chocolate lower the possibility of a heart attack.

A study performed at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm and appearing the Journal of Internal Medicine (September 2009), found that survivors of heart attacks who ate chocolate at least two or three times a week reduced their risk of death by a factor of up to three times compared to survivors who did not eat chocolate. The benefits were specific to chocolate and not to other sweets.

Aphrodisiac

Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. Although there is no proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, a gift of chocolate is a familiar courtship ritual.

Muscle recovery

A study from James Madison University, presented at the American College of Sports Medicine annual meeting, showed that post-exercise consumption of lowfat chocolate milk provides equal or possibly superior muscle recovery compared to a high-carbohydrate recovery beverage with the same amount of calories. Athletes consuming chocolate milk had significantly lower levels of creatine kinase, an indicator of muscle damage, compared to drinkers of carbohydrate beverage. Sweating causes loss of fluid and also important minerals, including calcium, potassium and magnesium. The 2-hour window after exercise is an important, but often neglected opportunity to recover.

Other benefits

Studies suggest a specially formulated type of cocoa may be nootropic and delay brain function decline as people age.

Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company, spends money each year on flavonol research. The company is talking with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavonol molecules. According to Mars-funded researchers at Harvard, the University of California, and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases.

Theobromine was found to be almost one third more effective than codeine, the leading cough medicine.

Flavonoids can inhibit the development of diarrhea, suggesting antidiarrhoeal effects of cocoa.

Obesity risk

The major concern that nutritionists have is that even though eating dark chocolate may not affect serum cholesterol, blood pressure or LDL oxidation, it is not known whether it affects certain biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, the amount needed to have this effect would provide a relatively large quantity of calories, which, if unused, would promote weight gain. Obesity is a significant risk factor for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease. As a consequence, consuming large quantities of dark chocolate in an attempt to protect against cardiovascular disease has been described as 'cutting off one's nose to spite one's face'.

Acne

Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be molded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons.

There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause acne. This belief is not supported by scientific studies. Various studies point not to chocolate, but to the high glycemic nature of certain foods, like sugar, corn syrup, and other simple carbohydrates, as a cause of acne. Chocolate itself has a low glycemic index. Other dietary causes of acne cannot be excluded yet, but more rigorous research is required.

Lead

Chocolate has one of the higher concentrations of lead among products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet, with a potential to cause mild lead poisoning. Recent studies have shown that although the beans themselves absorb little lead, it tends to bind to cocoa shells and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process. A recent peer-reviewed publication found significant amounts of lead in chocolate. In a USDA study in 2004, mean lead levels in the samples tested ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0965 g lead per gram of chocolate, but another study by a Swiss research group in 2002 found that some chocolate contained up to 0.769 g per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 g of lead per gram. In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary. While studies show that the lead consumed in chocolate may not all be absorbed by the human body, there is no known threshold for the effects of lead on children's brain function and even small quantities of lead can cause permanent neurodevelopmental deficits including impaired IQ.

Toxicity in animals

Main article: Theobromine poisoning

In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, small rodents, and cats because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment performed by a veterinarian involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion and administration of benzodiazepines or barbiturates for seizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluid diuresis.

A typical 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams (8.5 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. Of course, baking chocolate is rarely consumed directly due to its unpleasant taste, but other dark chocolates' canine toxicities may be extrapolated based on this figure. As dogs like the taste of chocolate products as much as humans do[citation needed], and are capable of finding and eating quantities much larger than typical human servings, they should be kept out of their reach. There are reports that mulch made from cacao bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock.

As a stimulant

Molten Chocolate

A chocolate sweet.

A model of the Reichstag made of chocolate at a Berlin shop

See also: Chocoholism

Chocolate contains a variety of substances, some of which have an effect on body chemistry. These include:

Anandamide

Arginine

Caffeine, present in smaller amounts

Dopamine

Methylated xanthines (theobromine, caffeine & theophylline)

Monoamine oxidase

Oxalic acid

Phenethylamine, an endogenous alkaloid sometimes described as a 'love chemical; it is quickly metabolized by monoamine oxidase-B and does not reach the brain in significant amounts

Phenylanine

Phenylethylamine

Serotonin

Sugar

Theobromine, the primary alkaloid in cocoa solids and chocolate and partly responsible for chocolate's mood-elevating effect

Theophylline

Tryptophan, an essential amino acid and precursor to serotonin

Chocolate is a mild stimulant to humans mainly due to the presence of theobromine. It is much more potent for horses, and its use in horse racing is prohibited.

White chocolate contains only trace amounts of the caffeine and theobromine of normal chocolates, because these chemicals are contained in the cocoa solids, not the cocoa butter, from which white chocolate is made.

Labelling

Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of "cocoa" or "cacao". It should be noted that this refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids.

Chocolates that are organic or fair trade certified carry labels accordingly.

In the United States, some large chocolate manufacturers lobbied the federal government to permit confection containing cheaper hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of cocoa butter to be sold as "chocolate". In June 2007, as a response to consumer concern after the proposed change, the FDA re-iterated that "Cacao fat, as one of the signature characteristics of the product, will remain a principal component of standardized chocolate"

Manufacturers

Main article: List of chocolate manufacturers

Many chocolate manufacturers have created products from chocolate bars to fudge, hoping to attract more consumers with each creation. Both The Hershey Company and Mars have become the largest manufacturers in the world. Other significant players include Cadbury, Nestl, Kraft Foods and Lindt.

The Hershey Company, known for their Hershey bar, Hershey's kisses and Reese's Peanut Butter Cups, is the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America. Mars, Incorporated, one of the largest privately owned U.S. corporations, is a worldwide manufacturer of confectionery and other food products with US$21 billion in annual sales in 2006. Mars is most famous for its eponymous Mars Bar, as well as other confectionery such as Milky Way, M&M's, Twix, Skittles and Snickers.

British-based Cadbury plc is the world's largest confectionery manufacturer. It is well known for its Dairy Milk range and Creme Egg; Fry's, Trebor Basset, the fair-trade brand Green & Black's also belong to the group.

Food conglomerates Nestl SA and Kraft Foods both have chocolate brands. Nestl acquired Rowntree's in 1988 and now market chocolates under their own brand, including Smarties and Kit Kat; Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of Jacobs Suchard, now own Milka, Suchard and Cadbury.

Labor in the chocolate industry

The chocolate industry is a steadily-growing, $50 billion dollar-a-year worldwide business centered around the sale and consumption of chocolate. This industry is prevalent on five out of seven continents. Big Chocolate, as it is also called, is essentially an oligopoly between major international chocolate companies in Europe and the U.S. These U.S. companies such as Mars and Hershey alone generate $13 billion a year in chocolate sales and account for two thirds of U.S. manufacturers. However, Europe accounts for 45% of the worlds chocolate revenue.

Chocolate slavery today is widespread in West African countries such as Mali, the Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Ghana, and Nigeria. 90% of the chocolate labor force is young children either kidnapped from their home lands, or sold into slavery. In Mali, children are bought and sold for $30 in U.S. currency from poor areas. Most of the time, poor parents from slums sell their own sons and daughters into slavery to make a quick profit and to decrease the number of mouths to feed.[citation needed]

In popular culture

Cadbury Creme Eggs are fondant-filled chocolate eggs.

Holidays

Chocolate is one of the most popular of gifts. On Valentine's Day, a box of chocolate is traditional, usually with flowers and a greeting card. It may be gifted on other holidays, including Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, and birthdays. At Easter, chocolate eggs are traditional. This is a confectionery made primarily of chocolate, and can either be solid, hollow, or filled with other sweets or fondant.

Books and film

Chocolate has been the center of several successful book and film adaptations. In 1964, Roald Dahl published a children's novel titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The novel centers around a poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the greatest chocolate factory in the world, owned by Willy Wonka. Two film adaptations of the novel were produced. The first was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, a 1971 film which later became a cult classic. Thirty-four years later, a second film adaptation was produced, titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The 2005 film was very well received by critics and was one of the highest grossing films of its year, earning over US$470,000,000 worldwide. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also recognized at the 78th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Costume Design for Gabriella Pesucci.

Like Water for Chocolate (Como agua para chocolate) is a 1989 love story by novelist Laura Esquivel that was adapted to film in 1992. The plot incorporates magical realism with Mexican cuisine and the title is a double entendre in its native language, referring both to a recipe for hot chocolate and to an idiom that is a metaphor for sexual arousal. The film earned 11 Ariel Awards from the Academia Mexicana de Artes y Ciencias Cinematogrficas including Best Picture.

Chocolat is a 1999 novel by Joanne Harris. It tells the story of Vianne Rocher, a young mother, whose confections change the lives of the townspeople. The 2000 film adaptation, Chocolat, also proved successful, grossing over US$150,000,000 worldwide, and receiving Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Picture, Best Actress, and Best Original Score.

Notes

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^ Campbell, Lyle. Quichean Linguistic Prehistory; University of California Publications in Linguistics No. 81. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 104. 

^ Santamaria, Francisco. Diccionario de Mejicanismos. Mexico: Editorial Porra S. A.. pp. 412413. 

^ Dakin, Karen; Wichmann, Sren (2000). "Cacao and Chocolate: A Uto-Aztecan perspective". Ancient Mesoamerica 11: 5575. doi:10.1017/S0956536100111058. 

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^ "Chocolate: A Mesoamerican Luxury 250-900 C.E. (A.D.) - Making Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_mesoamerican4.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

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^ "Achiote (Annatto) Cooking". las Culturas. http://www.lasculturas.com/lib/rcp/rcpAchiote.htm. Retrieved 21 May 2008. 

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^ a b "Chocolate: A European Sweet". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

^ "Chocolate: A European Sweet - 15211600 - Obtaining Cacao". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european3.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

^ "Chocolate: A European Sweet 1521-1600 - Using Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european5.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

^ "Chocolate: A European Sweet - 1600-1750 - Obtaining Cacao". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_european8.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

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^ "About Hans Sloane". Natural History Museum. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/projects/sloane-herbarium/hanssloane.htm. Retrieved 8 June 2007. 

^ "Chocolate: A Contemporary Confection 17501910 - Making Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_contemp4.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

^ "Chocolate: A Contemporary Confection 17501910 - Using Chocolate". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_contemp5.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

^ "Chocolate: A Contemporary Confection 1910oday - Today's Global Treat". Field Museum. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/Chocolate/history_contemp6.html. Retrieved 2 June 2008. 

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^ "Sensational Chocolates: Discover the Intense Robust flavor of 100% rand Cru Chocolate". Sensational Chocolates. http://www.sensationalchocolates.com/ingredients.html. Retrieved 17 May 2008. 

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^ "Harvesting the seeds". Xocoatl. http://www.xocoatl.org/harvest.htm. Retrieved 20 May 2008. 

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^ "Adopt Regulations of General Applicability to all Food Standards that would Permit, within Stated Boundaries, Deviations from the Requirements of the Individual Food Standards of Identity". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/07p0085/07p-0085.htm. Retrieved 9 June 2007. 

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^ Separate reference list for the image is available at its main page in Wikimedia Commons: Commons:File:Main health effects of chocolate.png#References.

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^ Epicatechin

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Bibliography

Coe, Sophie D.; Michael D. Coe (2000). The True History of Chocolate. Thames & Hudson. 

Further reading

Almond, Steve (2004). Candyfreak: A Journey Through the Chocolate Underbelly of America. Algonquin Books. ISBN 1-565-12421-9. 

Doutre-Roussel, Chloe (2005). The Chocolate Connoisseur. Piatkus. ISBN 1-585-42488-9. 

Lebovitz, David (2004). The Great Book of Chocolate. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-580-08495-8. 

McNeil, Cameron (2006). Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao. University of Florida Press. ISBN 0-813-02953-8. 

Off, Carol (2006). Bitter Chocolate: Investigating the Dark Side of the World's Most Seductive Sweet. Random House. ISBN 1-595-58330-0. 

Wolfe, David; Shazzie (2005). Naked Chocolate. Rawcreation. ISBN 1-556-43731-5. 

See also

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

Chocolate

Look up chocolate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Chocolate

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chocolate

Main article: Outline of chocolate

Chocolate chip

Big Chocolate

Candida krusei

Cocoa (disambiguation)

Chocolate milk

Fudge

United States military chocolate

Chocolate activism

Children in cocoa production

The chocolate game

External links

Chocolate at the Open Directory Project

Glossary of Chocolate Terms

 "Chocolate". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. 

v  d  e

Chocolate

History

History of chocolate

Origins

Theobroma cacao   Cacao bean

Varieties

Types of chocolate   Chocolate chip   Chocolate milk   Fudge   Chocolate bar   Hot chocolate

List of chocolate manufacturers   Outline of chocolate

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