Petrochemical

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List of significant petrochemicals and their derivatives

The following is a partial list of the major commercial petrochemicals and their derivatives:

ethylene - the simplest olefin; used as a ripening hormone, a monomer and a chemical feedstock down mattress topper

polyethylenes - polymerized ethylene mattress covers waterproof

ethanol - made by hydration (chemical reaction adding water) of ethylene mattress protector

ethylene oxide - sometimes called oxirane; can be made by oxidation of ethylene

ethylene glycol - from hydration of ethylene oxide or oxidation of ethylene

engine coolant - contains ethylene glycol

polyesters - any of several polymers with ester linkages in the backbone chain

glycol ethers - from condensation of glycols

ethoxylates

vinyl acetate

1,2-dichloroethane

trichloroethylene

tetrachloroethylene - also called perchloroethylene; used as a dry cleaning solvent and degreaser

vinyl chloride - monomer for polyvinyl chloride

polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - type of plastic used for piping, tubing, other things

propylene - used as a monomer and a chemical feedstock

isopropyl alcohol - 2-propanol; often used as a solvent or rubbing alcohol

acrylonitrile - useful as a monomer in forming Orlon, ABS

polypropylene - polymerized propylene

propylene oxide

propylene glycol - sometimes used in engine coolant

glycol ethers - from condensation of glycols

acrylic acid

acrylic polymers

allyl chloride -

epichlorohydrin - chloro-oxirane; used in epoxy resin formation

epoxy resins - a type of polymerizing glue from bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin, and some amine

C4 hydrocarbons - a mixture consisting of butanes, butylenes and butadienes

isomers of butylene - useful as monomers or co-monomers

isobutylene - feed for making methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) or monomer for copolymerization with a low percentage of isoprene to make butyl rubber

1,3-butadiene - a diene often used as a monomer or co-monomer for polymerization to elastomers such as polybutadiene or a plastic such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)

synthetic rubbers - synthetic elastomers made of any one or more of several petrochemical (usually) monomers such as 1,3-butadiene, styrene, isobutylene, isoprene, chloroprene; elastomeric polymers are often made with a high percentage of conjugated diene monomers such as 1,3-butadiene, isoprene, or chloroprene

higher olefins

polyolefins such poly-alpha-olefins which are used as lubricants

alpha-olefins - used as monomers, co-monomers, and other chemical precursors. For example, a small amount of 1-hexene can be copolymerized with ethylene into a more flexible form of polyethylene.

other higher olefins

detergent alcohols

benzene - the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon

ethylbenzene - made from benzene and ethylene

styrene made by dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene; used as a monomer

polystyrenes - polymers with styrene as a monomer

cumene - isopropylbenzene; a feedstock in the cumene process

phenol - hydroxybenzene; of dassdcten made by the cumene process

acetone - dimethyl ketone; also often made by the cumene process

bisphenol A - a type of "double" phenol used in polymerization in epoxy resins and making a common type of polycarbonate

epoxy resins - a type of polymerizing glue from bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin, and some amine

polycarbonate - a plastic polymer made from bisphenol A and phosgene (carbonyl dichloride)

solvents - liquids used for dissolving materials; examples often made from petrochemicals include ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, acetone, benzene, toluene, xylenes

cyclohexane - a 6-carbon aliphatic cyclic hydrocarbon sometimes used as a non-polar solvent

adipic acid - a 6-carbon dicarboxylic acid which can be a precursor used as a co-monomer together with a diamine to form an alternating copolymer form of nylon.

nylons - types of polyamides, some are alternating copolymers formed from copolymerizing dicarboxylic acid or derivatives with diamines

caprolactam - a 6-carbon cyclic amide

nylons - types of polyamides, some are from polymerizing caprolactam

nitrobenzene - can be made by single nitration of benzene

aniline - aminobenzene

methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) - used as a co-monomer with diols or polyols to form polyurethanes or with di- or polyamines to form polyureas

polyurethanes

alkylbenzene - a general type of aromatic hydrocarbon which can be used as a presursor for a sulfonate surfactant (detergent)

detergents - often include surfactants types such as alkylbenzenesulfonates and nonylphenol ethoxylates

chlorobenzene

toluene - methylbenzene; can be a solvent or precursor for other chemicals

benzene

toluene diisocyanate (TDI) - used as co-monomers with diols or polyols to form polyurethanes or with di- or polyamines to form polyureas

polyurethanes - a polymer formed from diisocyanates and diols or polyols

benzoic acid - carboxybenzene

caprolactam

nylon

mixed xylenes - any of three dimethylbenzene isomers, could be a solvent but more often precursor chemicals

ortho-xylene - both methyl groups can be oxidized to form (ortho-)phthalic acid

phthalic anhydride

para-xylene - both methyl groups can be oxidized to form terephthalic acid

dimethyl terephthalate - can be copolymerized to form certain polyesters

polyesters - although there can be many types, polyethylene terephthalate is made from petrochemical products and is very widely used.

purified terephthalic acid - often copolymerized to form polyethylene terephthalate

polyesters

Petrochemicals products

Petrochemicals

Polymers & Fibers

Petroleum

Chemicals

Healthcare

Basic Feedstock

Butadiene

Ethylene

Para-xylene

Propylene

Intermediates

2-Ethylhexanol (2-EH)

Acetic acid

Acrylonitrile (AN)

Ammonia

Cyclohexane

Dimethyl terephthalate (DMT)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (dioctyl phthalate)

Dodecylbenzene

Ethanol

Ethanolamine

Ethoxylate

1,2-Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride or EDC)

Ethylene glycol (EG)

Ethylene oxide (EO)

Formaldehyde

Linear alkylbenzene (LAB)

Methanol

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)

n-Butene

n-Hexene

Phenol

Propylene oxide

Purified terephthalic acid (PTA)

Styrene monomer (SM)

Urea

Vinyl acetate monomer (VAM)

Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM)

Acrylic fiber

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Acrylonitrile styrene (AS)

Polybutadiene (PBR)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polyethylene (PE)

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Polypropylene (PP)

Polystyrene (PS)

Styrene butadiene (SBR)

Urea-formaldehyde (UF)

Lubricants

Additives

Catalysts

Marine fuel oil

Petroleum refining

Adhesives and sealants

Agrochemicals

Construction chemicals

Corrosion control chemicals

Cosmetics raw materials

Electronic chemicals and materials

Flavourings, fragrances, food additives

Specialty and industrial chemicals

Specialty and industrial gases

Inks, dyes and printing supplies

Packaging, bottles, and containers

Paint, coatings, and resins

Polymer additives

Specialty and life sciences chemicals

Surfactants and cleaning agents

Health care

Pharmaceutical

See also

Petroleum

Petroleum products

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

Gulf Petrochemicals and Chemicals Association

Notes

^ a b (Matar p. xiii)

References

Matar, Sami; Hatch, Lewis Frederic (2001). Chemistry of petrochemical processes (2 ed.). Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 0884153150. http://books.google.com/books?id=PR6pujxc68kC&hl=it&source=gbs_navlinks_s. 

External links

ICIS, Petrochemical, oil and energy commodity price analysis and data

Petrochemistry in Europe

Educational resource on petrochemistry

Article showing some of the basics of a petchem facility

Categories: Petroleum products | Chemical engineering

Freight forwarder

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A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk page. (February 2009) gradual alarm clock

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009) antique carriage clocks

The storefront of one of many freight forwarding companies located around Guangzhou's garment districts. The list of destinations indicate that this business serves importers of Chinese clothes to countries such as Russia and Azerbaijan antique clocks mantle

A freight forwarder (often just forwarder) is a third party logistics provider. As a third party (or non asset based) provider a forwarder dispatches shipments via asset-based carriers and books or otherwise arranges space for those shipments. Carrier types include waterborne vessels, airplanes, trucks or railroads.

Freight forwarders typically arrange cargo movement to an international destination. Also referred to as international freight forwarders, they have the expertise that allows them to prepare and process the documentation and perform related activities pertaining to international shipments. Some of the typical information reviewed by a freight forwarder is the commercial invoice, shipper's export declaration, bill of lading and other documents required by the carrier or country of export, import, or transshipment. Much of this information is now processed in a paperless environment.

The FIATA short-hand description of the freight forwarder as the 'Architect of Transport' illustrates clearly the commercial position of the forwarder relative to his client. In Europe there are forwarders that specialise in 'niche' areas such as Railfreight and collection and deliveries around a large port. The latter are called Hafen(port) Spediteure (Port Forwarders). A forwarder in some countries may sometimes deal only with domestic traffic and never handle international traffic. (see also Forwarding Agent).

History of Freight Forwarders

The original function of the forwarder, or spediteur, was to arrange for the carriage of his customers' good by contracting with various carriers. His responsibilities included advice on all documentation and customs requirements in the country of destination. His correspondent agent in far-away lands looked after his customers' interests and kept him informed about matters that would affect movement of goods.

In modern times the forwarder still carries out those same responsibilities for his client. He still operates either with a corresponding agent overseas or with his own company branch-office. In many instances, the freight forwarder also acts as a carrier for part of a movement it can happen that in a single transaction the forwarder may be acting either as a carrier (principal) or as an agent for his customer.

Freight Forwarder Roles in Different Countries

USA

In the U.S., a freight forwarder involved with international ocean shipping is licensed by the Federal Maritime Commission as an Ocean Transportation Intermediary. Similarly, freight forwarders that handle air freight will frequently be accredited with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) as a cargo agent.

UK

In the U.K., freight forwarders are not licensed, but many are members of the British International Freight Association (BIFA). Freight forwarders in the UK consolidate various goods from different consignors into one full load for road transport to Europe, this is often known as groupage. Some freight forwarders offer additional related services like export packing and case making. The regulations regarding exporting untreated timber pallets and cases has got increasingly more strict and many for countries an exporter will be expected to provide a phytosanitary certificate or risk the expense of having their cargo fumigated.

Australia

In Australia most licensed Customs Clearance Agents (now more commonly referred to as Customs Brokers), operate under a freight forwarder.

Ireland

Even in smaller markets, such as Ireland, the role of freight forwarders is strategically important. International merchandise trade is worth 148 billion to the Irish economy . 82% of manufactured products are exported, further highlighting the importance of the freight forwarders to a nations' economy. Associations like the Irish International Freight Association and FIATAhelp maintain the professionalism of this industry through educational and representative roles. The FIATA Diploma in Freight Forwarding is an example of how this can be achieved.

Nigeria

Nigeria is a very large market dealing with import and export. Freight-forwarding in Nigeria has been in place since the exporting of groundnut as a cash crop since 1914, though not initially as freight forwarding but as the means of transportation of both goods and services from one country to another. Following the methodology of their British forebears, agents were used to facilitate the transport of goods and services.

References

^ What is a Freight Forwarder?

^ Irish International Freight Association

Categories: Commercial item transport and distribution | Logistics | Supply chain managementHidden categories: Wikipedia articles with possible conflicts of interest | Articles lacking sources from February 2009 | All articles lacking sources

Nixie tube

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Applications and lifetime

The way the digits are stacked in a nixie tube is visible in this picture.

Nixies were used as numeric displays in early digital voltmeters, multimeters, frequency counters and many other types of technical equipment. They also appeared in costly digital time displays used in research and military establishments, and in many early electronic desktop calculators, including the first: the Sumlock-Comptometer ANITA Mk VII of 1961. Later alphanumeric versions in fourteen segment display format found use in airport arrival/departure signs and stock ticker displays. Some elevators also used nixies to display the floor numbers. food dehydrator

Pair of NL-5441 Nixie display tubes chopper and blender

Average longevity of nixie tubes varied from about 5,000 hours for the earliest types, to as high as 200,000 hours or more for some of the last types to be introduced. There is no formal definition as to what constitutes "end of life" for nixies, mechanical failure excepted. Some sources (Weston 1968, p. 340) suggest that 50% reduction in emitted light would not be acceptable; however cathode poisoning resulting in incomplete digit display, whilst generally not preventing the tube from being used, may also be considered unacceptable. Nixie tubes are susceptible to multiple failure modes, including food processor cuisinart

simple breakage,

cracks and hermetic seal leaks allowing the atmosphere to enter,

cathode poisoning preventing part or all of one or more characters from illuminating,

increased striking voltage causing flicker or failure to light,

sputtering of electrode metal onto the glass envelope blocking the cathodes from view,

internal open or short circuits which may be due to physical abuse or sputtering.

Driving nixies outside of their specified electrical parameters will accelerate their demise, especially excess current, which increases sputtering of the electrodes. A few extreme examples of sputtering have even resulted in complete disintegration of nixie tube cathodes.

As testament to their longevity, and that of the equipment which used them, in 2006 several suppliers still provide common nixie tube types as service replacement parts, new in original packaging.[citation needed] Equipment with nixie tube displays in excellent working condition is still plentiful, though much of it has been in frequent use for 3040 years or more. Such items can easily be found as surplus and obtained at very little expense. It is worth noting that in the former Soviet Union, nixies were still being manufactured in volume in the 1980s, so Russian and Eastern European nixies are still generally easily and cheaply available.

One significant advantage of the ordinary Nixie tube is that its cathodes are typographically designed, shaped for legibility. In most types, they are not placed in numerical sequence from back to front, but arranged so that cathodes in front of the one that is lit obscure it minimally. The digit sequence is rarely given; one arrangement is 6 7 5 8 4 3 9 2 0 1 from front (6) to back (1). However, the photo above that shows a digit-4 cathode lit seems to have a 5 frontmost.

History

Systron-Donner frequency counter from 1973 with Nixie-tube display

The Nixie display was developed by a small vacuum tube manufacturer called Haydu Brothers Laboratories, and introduced in 1951 by Burroughs Corporation, who purchased Haydu and owned the name Nixie as a trademark. The name Nixie was derived by Burroughs from "NIX I", an abbreviation of "Numeric Indicator eXperimental No. 1." Similar devices that functioned in the same way were patented in the 1930s, and the first mass-produced display tubes were introduced in the late 1940s by National Union Co. and Telefunken. However, their construction was cruder, and they failed to find many applications until digital electronics reached a suitable level of development in the 1950s.

Burroughs even had another Haydu tube that could operate as a digital counter and directly drive a Nixie tube for display. This was called a "Trochotron", in later form known as the "Beam-X Switch" counter tube; another name was "magnetron beam-switching tube", referring to their similarity to a cavity magnetron. Trochotrons were used in the UNIVAC 1101 computer, as well as in clocks and frequency counters.

The first trochotrons were surrounded by a hollow cylindrical magnet, with poles at the ends. The field inside the magnet had essentially-parallel lines of force, parallel to the axis of the tube. It was a thermionic vacuum tube; inside were a central cathode, ten anodes, and ten "spade" electrodes. The magnetic field and voltages applied to the electrodes made the electrons form a thick sheet (as in a cavity magnetron) that went to only one anode. Applying a pulse with specfied width and voltages to the spades made the sheet advance to the next anode, where it stayed until the next advance pulse. Count direction was not reversible. A later form of trochotron called a Beam-X Switch replaced the large, heavy external cylindrical magnet with ten small internal metal-alloy rod magnets which also served as electrodes.

This tube displays symbols, such as % and C.

Glow-transfer counting tubes, similar in essential function to the Trochotrons, had a glow discharge on one of a number of main cathodes, visible through the top of the glass envelope. Most used a neon-based gas mixture and counted in base-10, but faster types were based on argon, hydrogen, or other gases, and for timekeeping and similar applications a few base-12 types were available. Sets of "guide" cathodes (usually two sets, but some types had one or three) between the indicating cathodes moved the glow in steps to the next main cathode. Types with two or three sets of guide cathodes could count in either direction. A well-known trade name for glow-transfer counter tube in the United Kingdom was Dekatron. Types with connections to each individual indicating cathode, which enabled presetting the tube's state to any value (in contrast to simpler types which could only be directly reset to zero or a small subset of their total number of states), were trade named Selectron tubes.

Some Nixie-like displays made by other firms were called by various trademarked names including Digitron, Inditron and Numicator. A proper generic term is "cold cathode neon readout tube", though the phrase "nixie tube" quickly entered the vernacular as a generic name. Hundreds of variations of this design were manufactured by many firms, from the 1950s until the 1990s.

Alternatives and successors

Other numeric display technologies concurrently in use included backlit columnar transparencies, a.k.a. "thermometer displays", light pipe, rear-projection and edge-lit lightguide displays (all using individual incandescent or neon light bulbs for illumination); Numitron incandescent filament readouts; and vacuum fluorescent display tubes. Prior to nixie tubes' coming into prominence, most numeric displays were electromechanical in nature, using stepping switches either directly by use of cylinders bearing printed numerals attached to their rotors, or indirectly by wiring the switches' outputs to indicator bulbs. Later, a few vintage clocks even used a form of stepping switch to drive nixie tubes.

Nixie tubes were superseded in the 1970s by light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and Vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), often in the form of seven-segment displays. The VFD used a hot filament to emit electrons and phosphor-coated anodes, like a cathode ray tube, shaped to represent segments of a digit, pixels of a graphical display, or complete letters, symbols, or words. Whereas nixies typically require 180 volts to illuminate, VFDs only require relatively low voltages to operate making them easier and cheaper to use. VFDs have a simple internal structure, resulting in a bright, sharp and unobstructed image. Unlike nixies, the glass envelope of a VFD is evacuated rather than being filled with a specific mixture of gases at low-pressure.

Specialized high voltage driver chips such as the 7441/74141 were available to drive nixies. LEDs were better suited to the low voltages that integrated circuits used, which was an advantage for devices such as pocket calculators, digital watches and handheld digital measurement instruments. Also, LEDs were much smaller and sturdier, without a fragile glass envelope. LEDs had lower power consumption than both VFDs and Nixie tubes.

Revival

A Nixie clock.

Citing dissatisfaction with the aesthetics of modern digital displays and a nostalgic fondness for the styling of obsolete technology, significant numbers of electronics enthusiasts in recent years have shown interest in reviving nixies. Unsold tubes that have been sitting in warehouses for decades are being brought out and used, the most common application being in homemade digital clocks. This is somewhat ironic, since during their heyday, nixies were generally considered too expensive for use in mass-market consumer goods such as clocks. This recent surge in demand has caused prices to increase significantly, particularly for large tubes. The largest type known to be in the hands of collectors, the Rodan CD-47/GR-414 (220 mm [8.7 in.] tall), have been sold for hundreds of dollars apiece, but these are extremely rare and only found in a few areas of the world by persistent and fortunate seekers. Prices for other large types displaying digits over 25 mm (1 inch) tall have increased by double, triple or more between 1998 and 2005.

A Nixie watch on the wrist of Steve Wozniak, co-founder of Apple Inc.

In addition to the nixie tube itself, another important consideration is the circuitry to control the tube. One of the more popular ways to do this is to use the Texas Instruments' SN74141 BCD Decoder Driver IC (or its Russian equivalents, the K155ID1 and KM155ID1, with plastic and ceramic packages, respectively). These have long since been out of production, much like the nixie tubes they were designed for.

See also

Genericized trademark

Sixteen-segment display

References

^ (Weston 1968, p. 334), (Bylander 1979, p. 65)

^ a b (Bylander 1979, p. 60)

^ , KD7LMO Nixie Tube Clock -- There's an exploded diagram here.

^ 'Solid State Devices--Instruments' article by S. Runyon in Electronic Design magazine vol. 24, 23 November 1972, p. 102, via Electronic Inventions and Discoveries: Electronics from its Earliest Beginnings to the Present Day, 4th Ed., Geoffrey William Arnold Dummer, 1997, ISBN 0-7503-0376-X, p. 170

^ Scientific American magazine, June 1973, p.66

^ Numitron Readout

^ http://spectrum.ieee.org/consumer-electronics/gadgets/new-life-for-nixies Glen Zorpette, New Life for Nixies, IEEE Spectrum June 2002, retrieved 2010 Jan 31

^ Rodan CD-47 tube

Bylander, E.G. (1979), Electronic Displays, New York: McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-009510-8 , LCCN 78-31849.

Dance, J.B. (1967), Electronic Counting Circuits, London: ILIFFE Books Ltd , LCCN 67-13048.

Weston, G.F. (1968), Cold Cathode Glow Discharge Tubes, London: ILIFFE Books Ltd , LCCN 68-135075, Dewey 621.381/51, LCC TK7871.73.W44.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nixie tubes

Brief history of Haydu Brothers

Mike's Electric Stuff: Display and Counting Tubes

Nixie tube photos and datasheets (English) (German)

Nixie tube cross-reference tables

Giant Nixie Tube Collection (German)

Virtual nixie tube devices on-line: nixie display, clock, calculator

CD47 / GR-414 200mm Nixie Tube

YouTube video showing a Nixie Tube in action

Nixie Tube photographs and data

v  d  e

Display technology

Video

Current generation

Electroluminescent display (ELD)  Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD)  Light emitting diode (LED) display  Cathode ray tube (CRT)  Liquid crystal display (LCD) (TFT  LED backlight)  Plasma display panel (PDP)  3LCD  Digital Light Processing (DLP)  Liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS)

Next generation

Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) (roll-up display  Active-matrix  Phosphorous)  Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)  Field emission display (FED)  Laser TV  Ferro Liquid display (FLD)  Interferometric modulator display (IMOD)  Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent (TDEL)  Nanocrystal display  Quantum dot display (QDLED)  Time-multiplexed optical shutter (TMOS)  Telescopic pixel display (TPD)  Liquid crystal lasers (LCL)  Laser Phosphor Display (LPD)

Non-video

Electromechanical (Flip-dot  Split-flap  Vane)  Electronic paper  Rollable  Eggcrate  Nixie tube

3D display

Stereoscopic  Autostereoscopic  Computer generated holography  Volumetric  Laser beam

Static media

Hologram  Movie projector  Neon sign  Rollsign  Slide projector  Transparency

Related articles

Display examples  Free-space display  Large-screen television technology  Optimum HDTV viewing distance  High dynamic range imaging (HDRI)

Comparison of display technology

Categories: Display technology | Neon lightingHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008

Production of non-ferrous metal industry in 2009 increased by 4% in output of 4.11 million tons of refined copper

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From the China Nonferrous Metals Industry Association was informed that in 2009 China's steady growth of non-ferrous metal production, 10 kinds of nonferrous metals output of 26.05 million tons, up 4%, annual energy consumption of non-ferrous metal industries 83.14 million tons of standard coal equivalent, down 3% . pulsar watches

    According to association statistics, China's refined copper output of 4.11 million tons, an increase of 8.7%, primary 12.85 million tons, down 2.5%, Pb 3.71 million tons, an increase of 15.6%, zinc 4.36 million tons, an increase of 11.3%. croton watches

    Kang Yi, president of China Nonferrous Metals Industry Association said that despite the financial crisis severely affected by last year, non-ferrous metals industry in the short period of time to achieve stabilized picked up gradually to a good trend. Non-ferrous metals is expected in 2009 industrial enterprises above designated size realized main business income of 2.1 trillion yuan a year, roughly flat with 2008 expected a profit of about 750-800 billion. rotary watches

    Tap the market, "Dao Bi" mechanism to stimulate enterprise restructuring and technological transformation initiative to enhance the capability of independent innovation, promote energy saving and emission reduction. To electrolytic aluminum industry as an example, the National Integrated AC ingot consumption of 14,171 kwh / ton, annual saving 2 billion kwh.

    Kang believes that by 2010, non-ferrous metal industry, development environment, although it may be better than last year, but it faces a complex situation. He pointed out that in non-ferrous metals industrial development need to focus on a few questions. Accurately grasp the operational state of the industry to promote the stable and rapid development, speed up industrial restructuring, change the mode of development, enhance self-innovation capability, to achieve industrial upgrading, and vigorously promote the development of overseas mineral resources, improve the shortage of mineral resources in support capabilities.

Shencheng an annual output of 100 million pairs of casual shoes

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Ruian City, Xincheng Town, more than 30000 employees engaged in production of casual shoes joyous, celebration, Xincheng become "China's largest production base of casual shoes." artisan stand mixers

Shencheng a long history of the town of footwear, shoes, shoes, sneakers have encountered production. In the absence of its own brand, product and low-grade, once into a corner. In 1992, wearing comfort, health and environment-friendly casual shoes in shencheng born. Its appearance has changed people's concept of the traditional shoes and quickly Zouqiao market. Quiet for a long time shencheng shoe up again flourishing. 42hl67 toshiba

Shencheng the town party committee and government to seize this timely opportunity for development, using various forms to educate and guide shoe sneakers owners learn the lessons of the production decline to ban a number of production of fake and shoddy products, processing, and guide enterprises to production scale, product grades, and plans to build industrial park covers an area of 2000 mu, with advanced facilities, preferential policies for investment into the business park to provide good services. To encourage enterprises to introduce advanced technology, increase the technological content of products. bosch mixer

Shencheng town is also actively guide the enterprises to implement brand strategy, to encourage more enterprises to create brand-name goods. "Dream foot shoe" invented casual shoes with perspiration, deodorant, massage function, well received by consumers, and received three national patents. Zhejiang bang sai shoe company products by China Trade Promotion, the French Science and Technology Quality Supervision and Evaluation Committee recommended the EU market as a product.

At present, the town has more than 300 casual shoes manufacturers, pipeline 230, the annual output reached 100 million pairs of industrial gross output value of 3.0 billion, accounting for leather casual shoe market share of more than 90%.

Peace Candle

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Structure

The Peace Candle has undergone several changes and variations over the last 58 years. The current candle was built in 1985 and is expected to last until about 2014, after which time Easton officials expect to build a new one. As of 2009, the central main candle stands 94-foot (29 m), and the base brings it to about 106-foot (32 m). It reaches a height of about 118-foot (36 m) above ground level when factoring the monument it rests atop. When the candle is assembled, several 8-foot (2.4 m) by 8-foot by 10-foot (3.0 m) box pieces are placed around the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument, a Civil War memorial in Centre Square, the town square of Easton's Downtown neighborhood. The box pieces are stacked vertically until the structure is assembled, and then bolted together using about 500 bolts inside the Peace Candle. The flame placed atop the candle is about 15-foot (4.6 m) high and illuminated with 31 bulbs. The entire structure weighs between eight and 10 tons. The main candle is surrounded by four, 15-foot (4.6 m) high side candles, and a fountain that surrounds the Peace Candle's base is filled with a ring of Christmas trees.

Creation custom lapel pin

Easton, the county seat of Northampton County in Pennsylvania, was considered one of the earliest cities to feature elaborate Christmas decoration displays on its city streets, with brightly-colored lights and ornamental displays adorning its homes, businesses and residences long before they appeared in other American cities. By the mid-20th century, however, the predominance of Christmas decorations began to diminish in Easton, and support among city officials and residents began to wane as interest in the tradition dropped. Bethlehem, another Northampton County city, came better known for its elaborate Christmas decorations, although it has been suggested it followed the example first set by Easton. In 1951, Mrs. Hutton Hughes wrote a letter in the city's newspaper, The Easton Express, urging that a new holiday program of Christmas lighting be established in the city. On June 13, 1951, the Merchants Association of the Easton Chamber of Commerce responded to the letter by forming the Easton Area Christmas Committee, which set a goal of restoring the prestige of Easton's old Yuletide decorations. Several suggestions were made for a Christmas centerpiece in Centre Square, the town square of Easton's downtown neighborhood, to serve as the focal point of the Christmas program and promote downtown shopping. One of the suggestions was to pile evergreen trees around the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument, a Civil War memorial located in Centre Square, but it was deemed too expensive to pursue. Another suggestion was to attach a giant candy cane atop the monument, but it was dismissed as too secular. During one of the committee meetings, Easton resident Dorothy Purdy suggested the idea of assembling a large candle in Centre Square, "because it would have no commercial aspect and it would serve to further good will in the community". The proposal was accepted. butterfly knives

The Peace Candle lit at night in 2009. led keyring flashlight

Easton Councilman Frank Bechtel was named chairman of the Easton Area Christmas Committee, and W. Nilan Jones was appointed chairman of the construction subcommittee. Jones, with the help of committee member and architect William Tydeman, studied the engineering angles involved in building a wooden candle structure that could be assembled over the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument. After determining such a project would be feasible, Jones drafted plans for a 96-foot (29 m) candle-shaped tower. The committee sought $4,000 for the Christmas display, and asked about 1,200 businesspeople were asked to make donations. Volunteers from the community, as well as members of the Local 239 United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, dedicated time, money and materials to the project, and Theodore Bean, proprietor of the local contractor company Bean, Inc., arranged for the use of his equipment and services to erect the candle. However, four days before it was scheduled to be built, Tydeman determined the structure design was too high to withstand the winds, and that there was a risk that it could topple along with the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument. The committee considered piercing the plywood panels to allow wind to travel through, but Jones said "some of the wood could have splintered apart and taken someone's head off". The proposal was completely redesigned and cut to 80-foot (24 m).

Construction of the Peace Candle began on December 8, 1951. Using a crane with a 95-foot (29 m) berm, as well as electrical equipment and other tools, 20 workmen placed the heavy plywood sheathing sections along all four sides of the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument. The structure was red with speckles of gold and silver, and green fir foliage around the base. It was assembled in four sections, which each ranged between 300 pounds (140 kg) and 750 pounds (340 kg) in weight. Once the tower was complete, it was topped off by an electric neon "flame". Since the Peace Candle design was cut to 80-foot (24 m), the top of the candle reached the base of a bugler statue at the top of the memorial. The flame consisted a cage-like frame of curved steel bars covered with yellow neon lights. The flame was placed over the bugler, and a yellow cotton sack was placed atop the statue to further create the image of a flame, and so the bugler would not be visible atop the candle. Plastic wax drippings were designed to extend downward from the top of the candle beneath the flame. Construction of the Peace Candle progressed slower than expected because Bean Inc. contractors had trouble attaching the base sections. The work was not finished until December 9. The original Peace Candle display cost $3,390.92, all of which was offset by donations from about 271 donors amounting to $4,055.35 in total.

The first candle (1951-1968)

Inaugural decade

"Thus there was a living evidence of unity such as this nation needs in these fast-moving and dangerous times. ... The giant candle in the Circle can be a symbol of peace and good citizenship, and of that unity without which this nation could not exist. Again, all honor to the public-spirited citizens, men and women, whose concerted efforts made possible the placing of such an unusual Yuletide decoration."

he Easton Express editorial, 1951

On December 10, 1951, Easton Mayor Joseph Morrison flipped the switch to light up the Peace Candle during its first dedication ceremony. Joining Morrison and Frank Bechtel in the dedication were a Catholic priest, a Jewish rabbi and a Protestant minister, to demonstrate the Peace Candle was meant to serve as a symbol of peace for all religions and denominations. More than 500 people attended the ceremony. In addition to the candle, the decorations included Christmas trees, smaller candle displays, large plywood wreaths and Christmas lights set up by students from the Easton High School and the city's Wolf and Schull junior high schools. It also included plaques honoring the Easton area men and women on active duty in the United States armed forces. The Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission decorated the nearby Northampton Street bridge, which crossed the Delaware River, with its first Christmas light display in 14 years. A series of nightly Christmas choir concerts were held in front of the Peace Candle starting December 18, and organ music was piped to the Centre Square from the city's First Presbyterian Church. Downtown business owners participated by decorating their windows with Christmas themes. Morrison called the Peace Candle display "the most elaborate in Easton's history". The Peace Candle was so large it drew the attention of airplanes passing over the city, and Easton officials described it the largest candle in the United States.

On December 11, however, one of the neon lights in the flame structure short-circuited and started a fire on the yellow cotton sack placed over the bugler statue, causing an actual fire on the Peace Candle flame for a brief amount of time. The blaze caused only minor damage to the Peace Candle, but the bugler statue was exposed and visible inside the flame for the rest of the season. Despite this setback, the Peace Candle was widely considered a success, and the Easton Area Christmas Committee signed a charter on December 17, 1951, tasking itself with organizing a yearly holiday program revolving around the Peace Candle. The candle was assembled again every Christmas season until 1961, with ceremonies generally including holiday decorations, Christmas carols, refreshments, appearances by Santa Claus and other forms of entertainment. The Easton Area Christmas Committee was responsible for raising the funds and encouraging the civic interest necessary to keep the program active.

In 1952, a new, fireproof flame as designed in response to the previous year's fire. The new flame design enclosed the steel tubing of the flame (which concealed the bugler statue), looked more realistic and better matched the flames on the four smaller candles at the Peace Candle's base. The 1952 Peace Candle display included further expansions from the previous year, including the addition of 20 new plywood light standard plaques by the Easton High School, as well as decorations on the Bushkill Street Bridge in addition to the Northampton Street bridge. With the hopes of increasing nationwide publicity for the Peace Candle, the Easton City Council started dubbing the structure, "the world's largest Christmas candle". The Easton Area Christmas Committee continued raising the funds for the Christmas program up until 1957, when they needed to raise $3,500 from the public to make necessary repairs to the Peace Candle for safety reasons. The next year, the committee started to receive a budget from the city, and were approved for $3,000 by the city council in 1958. The program continued to grow each year, and included 3,000 Evergreen trees assembled around the Centre Square by 1957, when more than 500 people attended the lighting ceremony in 20-degree weather.

Removal and reconstruction

In 1961, the Peace Candle fell into a state of disrepair, and the contractors who assemble the candle for discounted prices in previous years informed the city they could not handle the project again. The Easton Area Christmas Committee also had trouble raising additional money needed for the repairs, For all these reasons, they decided not to assemble the candle again. The candle was placed into storage at an old incinerator plant on Pennsylvania Route 611, and the Easton Area Christmas Committee sought alternative decorations for its holiday program. In 1961, 24 streams of multi-colored Christmas light strands (totaling 2,650 bulbs) were draped from the top of the monument to the edges of Centre Square, creating an umbrella-like shape of lights. More than 200 Christmas Trees were also placed around the base of the monument, along with a nativity scene and Christmas light decorations on the nearby bridges. The set-up cost only $2,000, compared to the average $3,000 for the Peace Candle display. This display was used for the next five years, and the decorations around the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument came to be known as "the umbrella of Christmas lights".

In early 1965, Easton City Councilman Fred Ashton conducted a report announcing there had been "considerable criticism" of Easton's holiday decorations, prompting the Easton Area Christmas Committee to consider restoring the candle. But public contributions had continued to decline, and the project was so expensive the city deemed they could not afford it. The next year, however, Councilman Henry Schultz started an effort to restore the Peace Candle. Schultz recruited a number of volunteers to make the necessary repairs, including Easton artist Joe DeThomas, who repainted the structure. A new, 14-foot (4.3 m) flame was built using a new type of quartz, which used 6,000 watts to create a stronger light. The candle was erected and lighted at a ceremony on November 25, 1966, for the first time in six years. Easton Mayor George S. Smith flipped the switch, and the candle was once again dedicated to the local men and women of the armed forces. More than 400 people attended the ceremony, which this year also included 68 Christmas trees decorated with 1,500 lights.

Second candle (1969-)

On October 25, 1968, a fire at the former incinerator plant off Route 611, where the Peace Candle was being stored, destroyed the four smaller candles that surround the base of the larger candle. The fire was believed to have started by someone playing with matches inside the building. Firefighters battled the blaze for more than an hour. Damage was estimated at a cost of $1,200. Initially, city officials announced the fire would not delay the lighting ceremony planned for December 1. However, the Easton Area Christmas Committee had already been debating the construction of a new Peace Candle prior to the fire. On October 29, Henry Schultz, now chairman of the Christmas committee, announced the four smaller candles were damaged beyond repair and no effort would be made to rebuild them. Instead, the committee would build an entirely new candle within a year.

The original plywood candle was replaced with a stronger fiberglass candle, designed by the Allentown-based firm Rileigh's Inc. The construction cost about $12,500. The fiberglass covering was stretched on steel and wood frames. The flame was built out of fiberglass strips with lights that changed color in sequence, to create a more realistic burning flame than the original candle. The new structure was 90-foot (27 m), compared to the original 80-foot (24 m). Due to the increase in size, it was no longer necessary to place the flame structure over the bugler statue on the top of the Soldiers' & Sailors' Monument.

2009 lighting ceremony

Superior Court Judge Jack Panella won a $770 bid on the auction website eBay to flip the switch and turn on the Peace Candle during the candle-lighting ceremony on November 27, 2009.

See also

Schlitz Christmas Candle

References

^ "International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers". IBEW Journal 90. 1991. 

^ "Nov. 23, 2009 100 years ago today". The Express-Times: p. B6. 2009-11-23. 

^ a b Koltnow, Bo (2009-11-27). "Easton Peace Candle Lighting". WFMZ-TV. http://wfmz.com/view/?id=1306024. Retrieved 2009-11-29. 

^ a b Saunders, William Lawrence (1955). Compressed air magazine. 60-61. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library. p. 370. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Easton's Christmas Candle Has Its Ups and Downs". The Easton Express. 1967-10-25. 

^ a b McEvoy, Colin (2009-12-20). "How Easton measures up: Peace Candle not the tallest, but plenty tall". The Express-Times (Easton, Pennsylvania): p. A1. http://www.lehighvalleylive.com/easton/index.ssf?/base/news-1/1261285520187730.xml&coll=3. Retrieved 2009-12-22. 

^ a b c Nauroth, Tony (2007-12-06). "All about Easton's famous Peace Candle". The Express-Times: p. D1. 

^ a b c d e f g h i "Easton's Christmas Candle". The Easton Express: p. 1. 1951-12-12. 

^ a b c d "Bechtel Is Named Head Of Easton Christmas Group". The Easton Express: p. 1. 1951-06-14. 

^ a b c d e f g h i Troxell, Donna (1980-11-28). "Famous flame burns on and on and on...". The Easton Express. 

^ "Support Sought For Activity Of Yule Committee". The Easton Express. 1951-11-15. 

^ a b c d "Workmen Begin Erecting Candle In Centre Square". The Easton Express. 1951-12-08. 

^ a b c d e "Yule Decorations Nearly Completed, Committee Hears". The Easton Express. 1951-11-29. 

^ a b "Committee Lists Costs Of $3,390 In Yule Program". The Easton Express. 1952-01-30. 

^ a b "Christmas Decorations, Product Of Year's Effort, Are Dedicated In Easton". The Easton Express: p. 1. 1951-12-11. 

^ a b "Charter Granted To Area Citizens Christmas Group". The Easton Express. 1951-12-17. 

^ a b "Yule Committee Moves To Enlarge Lighting Program". The Easton Express. 1952-09-18. 

^ a b "Christmas Committee Fixes Budget Of $3000 For Easton Activities". The Easton Express. 1958-11-12. 

^ "Yule Committee Pushes Plans For Bridge, Circle Displays". The Easton Express. 1954-11-17. 

^ "Public Is Asked To Contribute To Yule Display". The Easton Express. 1957-10-08. 

^ "Christmas Season Becomes Official In Centre Square". The Easton Express. 1957-12-13. 

^ a b "City's Christmas Candle Will Be Replaced By Streamers Of Lights". The Easton Express. 1961-09-05. 

^ "Herald Coming Season". The Easton Express. 1964-11-21. 

^ "Council Studies Restoring Candle To Yule Scene". The Easton Express. 1965-01-07. 

^ "Easton's Christmas Candle Dedicated To Armed Forces". The Easton Express. 1966-11-26. 

^ "Schultz Hopes Fire Won't Delay Yule Candles". The Easton Express: p. 20. 1968-10-25. 

^ "Small Candles In Square Will Not Be Rebuilt". The Easton Express. 1968-10-29. 

^ a b "New Easton Yule Candle To Be Bigger, Fancier". The Easton Express. 1969-05-27. 

^ "Yule Candle Dedicated In Centre Square Rites". The Easton Express. 1969-11-29. 

^ "Superior Court Judge Jack Panella wins auction to light Easton Peace Candle". The Express-Times. 2009-11-16. http://www.lehighvalleylive.com/easton/index.ssf/2009/11/superior_court_judge_jack_pane.html. Retrieved 2009-11-24. 

Categories: Candles | Christmas events and celebrations | Christmas in the United States | Easton, Pennsylvania | Lehigh Valley | Monuments and memorials in Pennsylvania | Northampton County, PennsylvaniaHidden categories: Pennsylvania articles missing geocoordinate data | All articles needing coordinates

Silver mining in Colorado

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Central City-Idaho Springs district

Silver veins were discovered in the Central City-Idaho Springs district a short time after lode gold was discovered in 1859. However, mining the silver veins was delayed for the most part until smelters were built in the late 1860s. The veins of the district are zoned in a roughly concentric manner, with gold-bearing pyrite veins in the center, and silver-bearing galena veins more common in the outlying areas.

Montezuma district air filter honeywell

The first silver discovery in Colorado was a mile south of Montezuma in 1864. The discovery led to others in the Montezuma district. humidifier filters

Argentine district hunter air purifier filter

The discovery of silver in the Montezuma district led to the silver discovery at the Belmont lode in the Argentine district just northeast of the Montezuma district.

Georgetown-Silver Plume district

Prospectors found gold veins near present Georgetown in 1859. Silver, the main product from the district, was not discovered until 1864.

Leadville district

Shopkeeper Horace Tabor "grubstaked" a pair of prospectors, and their silver discovery at Leadville turned him into a millionaire

See Leadville mining district

Despite the early silver discoveries, Colorado largest silver district, Leadville was not discovered until 1874. Leadville was the largest silver-producing district in Colorado. Cumulative production through 1963 was 240 million troy ounces of silver, 3 million troy ounces of gold, 987 million metric tons of lead, 712 million metric tons of zinc, and 48 million metric tons of copper.

Aspen district

Silver mines at Aspen, circa 1898-1905.

In 1879, prospectors searching for another Leadville were led to the Aspen area by geological maps that showed outcrops of Leadville Limestone. They found silver ore on Aspen Mountain, but ore production was small until the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad reached the town in 1887 and provided economic shipment of ore to smelters. Ore occurs in the Mississippian Leadville Limestone and the lower part of the overlying Pennsylvanian Belden Formation. Ore minerals include galena, sphalerite, and native silver. Early production was almost all silver, but after 1900, lead and zinc became economically important. Major mining operations continued until 1952. Total production was 101 million troy ounces of silver, 294 tons[vague] of lead, and 11,000 tons[vague] of zinc.

Gilman district

Silver was discovered in the Gilman mining district in 1878 or 1879. As they reached the deeper sulfide ores, the miners found that the ore contained so much zinc that the smelters refused to buy it. A roaster and magnetic separator were installed in 1905 to separate out the zinc minerals, turning the problem into an asset. The mining operations transitioned increasingly to zinc, although the Eagle Mine was still the leading producer of silver in the state in 1930. The New Jersey Zinc Company entered Gilman in 1912, and over a period of years bought all the principal mines and the entire townsite. Zinc was the economic mainstay until 1931, when low zinc prices forced the company to switch to mining copper-silver ores. Production of the district through 1964 was 64 million troy ounces (1,990 metric tons) of silver, 348,000 ounces (10.82 metric tons) of gold, 578,000 metric tons of zinc, 114,000 metric tons of lead, and 92,000 metric tons of copper. Zinc production resumed in 1941, and remained the principal product of the mines until they were closed in the 1980s.

Creede district

The Creede district in Mineral County was discovered in 1887, but did not become a significant silver producer until 1891. The ore occurs as veins along north-south trending faults, and as replacement bodies in the Creede Formation, a Tertiary ash-flow tuff. Ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, acanthite, native silver, pyrite and chalcopyrite. Production through 1983 totaled 80 million ounces (2,490 metric tons) of silver, 150 thousand ounces (4.7 metric tons) of gold, and considerable lead and zinc.

Current production

The largest current source of silver in Colorado is as a byproduct of gold mining at the Cripple Creek & Victor mine, a large open-pit heap leach operation owned by AngloGold Ashanti at Victor, Colorado (see Cripple Creek mining district). In 2006, the mine produced 4.0 metric tons (130,000 ounces) of silver.

Citations

^ T. S. Lovering and E. N. Goddard (1950) Geology and Ore Deposits of the Front Range Colorado, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 223, p.123.

^ Ogden Tweto (1968) Leadville District, Colorado, in Ore Deposits of the United States 1933-1967, New York: American Institute of Mining Engineers, p.681-705

^ Bruce Bryant (1977) Mining at Aspen, in Exploration Frontiers of the Central and Southern Rockies, Denver: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p.451-455.

^ R.E. Radabaugh and others (1968) Geology and ore deposits of the Gilman (Red Cliff, Battle Mountain) district, Eagle County, Colorado, in Ore Deposits in the United States 1933/1967, v.1, New York: American Institute of Mining Engineers, p.641-664.

^ Mark W. Davis and Randall K. Streufert (1990) Gold Occurrences of Colorado, Colorado Geological Survey, Resource Series 28, p.70-73.

^ Richard W. Robinson and David J. Norman, Mineralogy and fluid inclusion study of the southern Amethyst vein system, Creede mining district, Colorado, Economic Geology, May 1984, p.439-447.

^ . Burnell and others, Colorado, Mining Engineering, May 2007, p.76.>

See also

Champion Mill

Gold mining in Colorado

Silver mining

Silver mining in the United States

v  d  e

Categories: Silver mining in the United States | Mining in Colorado | Geology of the Rocky Mountains | Colorado Mining Boom | Mining stubsHidden categories: All Wikipedia articles needing clarification | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2009

Mustard oil

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Mustard oil from pressed seeds

Ox-powered mill grinding mustard seed for oil

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This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (December 2008) lawn aerator

This oil has a strong sinus-irritating aroma, like that of horseradish or wasabi, a hot nutty taste, and is often used for cooking in Pakistan, India, Bangladehs, Sri lanka and surrounding areas, maily for deep frying. It is the traditionally preferred oil for cooking, although nowadays neutral-flavored oils like sunflower oil are also extensively used. The oil makes up about 30% of the mustard seeds. It can be produced from black mustard (Brassica nigra), brown Indian mustard (Brassica juncea), and white mustard (Brassica hirta). chain saw stihl

Mustard oil has about 60% monounsaturated fatty acids of which 42% erucic acid and 12% oleic acid, it has 21% polyunsaturates of which 6% is the omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid and 15% omega-6 linoleic acid and it has 12% saturated fats.

Mustard seeds, like all seeds of the Brassica family, including canola (rapeseed) and turnip, have high levels of omega-3 (611%) and are a common, cheap, mass-produced source of plant-based (therefore, vegetarian) omega-3 fatty acids (see Indo-Mediterranean diet in the links below). Flax (linseed) oil has 55% plant-based omega-3 but is uncommon as a table or cooking oil. Soybean oil has 6% omega-3 but contains over 50% omega-6, the fatty acid that competes with the omega-3 function. Other than rapeseed and mustard oils, there are few other common sources of plant based omega-3 in Western and Indian diets. Especially when omega-6 intake is kept low, humans can convert the plant omega-3 into one of the fish omega-3s, eicosapentaenoic acid, in limited amounts, a useful source for vegetarians.

Mustard oil is often heated almost to smoking before it is used for cooking; this may be an attempt to reduce the strong smell and taste. However, high heat can damage the omega-3 in the oil, reducing its unique role in health. In Western countries, the oil is often sold "for external use only" in stores catering to central Asian immigrants, where it is also used for rub-downs and massages, thought to improve blood circulation, muscular development and skin texture; the oil is also antibacterial.

Effects on health

The effects of erucic acid from edible oils on human health are controversial. However no negative health effects have ever been documented in humans. A four-to-one mixture of erucic acid and oleic acid constitutes Lorenzo's oil; an experimental treatment for a rare neurobiology disorder adrenoleukodystrophy.

Mustard oil was once considered unsuitable for human consumption in the United States, Canada, and the European Union due to the high content of erucic acid. This is because of early studies in rats. Subsequent studies on rats have shown that they are less able to digest vegetable fats (whether they contain erucic acid or not) than humans and pigs. Chariton et al. suggests that in rats: nefficient activation of erucic acid to erucyl-CoA and a low level of activity of triglyceride lipase and enzymes of betaoxidation for erucic acid probably contribute to the accumulation and retention of cardiac lipid.6] Before this process was fully understood it led to the belief that erucic acid and mustard oil were both highly toxic to humans.

Epidemiological studies[citation needed] suggest that, in regions where mustard oil is still used in a traditional manner, mustard oil may afford some protection against cardiovascular diseases. In this sense "traditional" means that the oil is used fresh and vegetable fats count only as a small percentage of the total caloric intake. Whether this effect is due to the nature of erucic acid per se to make the blood platelets less sticky, or to the presence of a reasonably high percentage of -linolenic acid, or to a combination of properties of fresh unrefined oil, is as yet uncertain. Care needs to be taken with such epidemiological studies in order to exclude the possibility of early deaths from other causes skewing the results. The fact that early asymptomatic coronary disease is readily detectable post mortem and is absent in the mustard oil cohorts tends to add weight to the hypothesis that mustard oil is protective.

The use of mustard oils in traditional societies for infant massage has been identified as risking damaging skin integrity and permeability.

Mustard oil from mixing seeds with water

The pungency of the condiment mustard results when ground mustard seeds are mixed with water, vinegar, or other liquid (or even when chewed). Under these conditions, a chemical reaction between the enzyme myrosinase and a glucosinolate known as sinigrin from the seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra) or brown Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) produces allyl isothiocyanate. By distillation one can produce a very sharp-tasting essential oil, sometimes called volatile oil of mustard, containing more than 92% allyl isothiocyanate. The pungency of allyl isothiocyanate is due to the activation of the TRPA1 ion channel in sensory neurons. White mustard Brassica hirta does not yield allyl isothiocyanate, but a different and milder isothiocyanate.

Allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a defense against herbivores. Since it is harmful to the plant itself, it is stored in the harmless form of a glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme. Once the herbivore chews the plant, the noxious allyl isothiocyanate is produced. Allyl isothiocyanate is also responsible for the pungent taste of horseradish and wasabi. It can be produced synthetically, sometimes known as synthetic mustard oil.

Because of the contained allyl isothiocyanate, this type of mustard oil is toxic and irritates the skin and mucous membranes. In very small amounts, it is often used by the food industry for flavoring. In northern Italy, for instance, it is used in the fruit condiment called mostarda. It is also used to repel cats and dogs. It will also denature alcohol, making it unfit for human consumption, thus avoiding the taxes collected on alcoholic beverages.[citation needed]

The CAS number of this type of mustard oil is 8007-40-7, and the CAS number of pure allyl isothiocyanate is 57-06-7.

Use of mustard oil in central Asian cultural activities

Mustard oil was once popular as a cooking oil, however, in the second half of the 20th century the popularity of mustard oil receded due to the availability of mass-produced vegetable oils. It is still intricately embedded in the culture, used in these contexts:

Deep frying vegetables dipped in Chick-Pea powder dough, locally known as pakoRas

Poured on both sides of door threshold when someone important comes home for the first time (e.g. a newly-wedded couple or a son or daughter when returning after a long absence, or succeeding in exams or an election.

Used as traditional jaggo pot fuel in Punjabi weddings.

Used as part of home-made cosmetics during mayian.

Used as fuel for lighting earthen lamps (diyas) on festive occasions such as Diwali.

Used in hair. Known to be extremely beneficial to the hair.

References

^ USDA food data base item 04583

^ Food Standards Australia New Zealand (June 2003) Erucic acid in food : A Toxicological Review and Risk Assessment . Technical report series No. 21; Page 4 paragraph 1; ISBN 0 642 34526 0, ISSN 1448-3017

^ Hulan HW, Kramer JK, Mahadevan S, Sauer FD (January 1976). "Relationship between erucic acid and myocardial changes in male rats". Lipids 11 (1): 915. PMID 1250074. 

^ Kramer JK, Farnworth ER, Thompson BK, Corner AH, Trenholm HL (May 1982). "Reduction of myocardial necrosis in male albino rats by manipulation of dietary fatty acid levels". Lipids 17 (5): 37282. PMID 7098776. 

^ de Wildt DJ, Speijers GJ (June 1984). "Influence of dietary rapeseed oil and erucic acid upon myocardial performance and hemodynamics in rats". Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 74 (1): 99108. PMID 6729825. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0041-008X(84)90275-8. 

^ Charlton KM, Corner AH, Davey K, Kramer JK, Mahadevan S, Sauer FD (July 1975). "Cardiac lesions in rats fed rapeseed oils". Can. J. Comp. Med. 39 (3): 2619. PMID 1170010. 

^ Rastogi T, Reddy KS, Vaz M, et al. (April 2004). "Diet and risk of ischemic heart disease in India". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79 (4): 58292. PMID 15051601. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/4/582. 

^ Darmstadt GL, Mao-Qiang M, Chi E, Saha SK, Ziboh VA, Black RE, Santosham M, Elias PM. (2002). Impact of topical oils on the skin barrier: possible implications for neonatal health in developing countries. Acta Paediatr. 91(5):546-54. PMID 12113324

^ "Mustard". A Guide to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/MUSTARD.html. Retrieved 3 January 2009. 

^ "Mustard Oil, Synthetic". ScienceLab. http://www.sciencelab.com/page/S/PVAR/23050/SLM2875. Retrieved 3 January 2009. 

External links

Effect of an Indo-Mediterranean diet on progression of coronary artery disease in high risk patients (Indo-Mediterranean Diet Heart Study) a randomised single-blind trial.

Isolation of Erucic Acid from Mustard Seed Oil by Candida rugosa lipase

Tanuja Rastogi (2004). "Diet and risk of ischemic heart disease in India". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79 (4): 582592. 

v  d  e

Edible fats and oils

Fats

Bacon fat  Blubber  Butter  Clarified butter  Cocoa butter  Dripping  Duck fat  Ghee  Lard  Margarine  Niter kibbeh  Salo  Schmaltz  Shea butter  Smen  Suet  Tallow  Vegetable shortening

Oils

Almond oil  Argan oil  Avocado oil  Canola oil  Cashew oil  Castor oil  Coconut oil  Colza oil  Corn oil  Cottonseed oil  Fish oil  Grape seed oil  Hazelnut oil  Hemp oil  Linseed oil (flaxseed oil)  Macadamia oil  Marula oil  Mongongo nut oil  Mustard oil  Olive oil  Palm oil (palm kernel oil)  Peanut oil  Pecan oil  Perilla oil  Pine nut oil  Pistachio oil  Poppyseed oil  Pumpkin seed oil  Rapeseed oil  Rice bran oil  Safflower oil  Sesame oil  Soybean oil  Sunflower oil  Tea seed oil  Walnut oil  Watermelon seed oil  Whale oil

See also: List of vegetable oils  Cooking oil  Essential oil

Categories: Cooking oils | Vegetable oils | Essential oilsHidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from October 2008 | All pages needing cleanup | Articles that may contain original research from December 2008 | All articles that may contain original research | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2008

Potted meat food product

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Reputation

Canned meats such as Spam have a mixed reputation on account of the taste, texture, ingredients, preparation and nutrition. For example, mechanically separated chicken or "mechanically separated poultry" is a paste-like product made by forcing crushed bone and tissue through a sieve to separate bone from tissue. In the United States, mechanically separated poultry has been used in poultry products since 1969 after the National Academy of Sciences found it safe for use. On November 3, 1995, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) published a final rule in the Federal Register (see 60 FR 55962) on mechanically separated poultry, stating that it was safe to use without restrictions. However, it must be labeled as "mechanically separated chicken or turkey" in the ingredient statement. The final rule became effective on November 4, 1996.

Ingredients ground venison

Armour Star: Mechanically separated chicken, beef tripe, partially defatted cooked beef fatty tissue, beef hearts, water, partially defatted cooked pork fatty tissue, salt, and less than 2 percent: mustard, natural flavorings, dried garlic, dextrose, sodium erythorbate, and sodium nitrite. popcorn popper

Hormel: Beef tripe, mechanically separated chicken, beef hearts, partially defatted cooked beef fatty tissue, meat broth, vinegar, salt, flavoring, sugar, and sodium nitrite. pure cocoa powder

Libby's: Mechanically separated chicken, pork skin, partially defatted cooked pork fatty tissue, partially defatted cooked beef fatty tissue, vinegar, less than 2% of: salt, spices, sugar, flavorings, sodium erythorbate and sodium nitrate.

See also

Potted shrimps

Food preservation

Spam (food)

References

^ "9 CFR Part 318, et al.; Poultry Products Produced by Mechanical Separation and Products In Which Such Poultry Products Are Used; Final Rule" (PDF). U.S. Department of Agriculture. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getpage.cgi?dbname=1995_register&position=all&page=55962. Retrieved 2007-11-25. 

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Categories: Canned food | MeatHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007