Phosphor

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Principles

A material can emit light either through incandescence, where all atoms radiate, or by luminescence, where only a small fraction of atoms, called emission centers or luminescence centers, emit light. In inorganic phosphors, these inhomogeneities in the crystal structure are created usually by addition of a trace amount of dopants, impurities called activators. (In rare cases dislocations or other crystal defects can play the role of the impurity.) The wavelength emitted by the emission center is dependent on the atom itself, and on the surrounding crystal structure. Electroluminescent devices degrade in dependence on frequency of driving current and the luminance level, temperature; moisture impairs phosphor lifetime very significantly as well.

Phosphor degradation conveyor toaster

Many phosphors tend to gradually lose efficiency, by several mechanisms. The activators can undergo change of valence (usually oxidation), the crystal lattice degrades, atoms - often the activators - diffuse through the material, the surface undergoes chemical reactions with the environment, etc. toster

Examples: toaster broiler

BaMgAl10O17:Eu2+ (BAM), a plasma display phosphor, undergoes oxidation of the dopant during baking. Three mechanisms are involved; absorption of oxygen atoms into oxygen vacancies on the crystal surface, diffusion of Eu(II) along the conductive layer, and electron transfer from Eu(II) to adsorbed oxygen atoms, leading to formation of Eu(III) with corresponding loss of emissivity. Thin coating of aluminium phosphate or lanthanum(III) phosphate is effective in creation a barrier layer blocking access of oxygen to the BAM phosphor, for the cost of reduction of phosphor efficiency. Addition of hydrogen, acting as a reducing agent, to argon in the plasma displays significantly extends the lifetime of BAM:Eu2+ phosphor, by reducing the Eu(III) atoms back to Eu(II).

Y2O3:Eu phosphors under electron bombardment in presence of oxygen form a non-phosphorescent layer on the surface, where electron-hole pairs recombine nonradiatively via surface states.

ZnS:Mn, used in AC thin film electroluminescent (ACTFEL) devices degrades mainly due to formation of deep electron traps, by reaction of water molecules with the dopant; the traps act as centers for nonradiative recombination. The traps also damage the crystal lattice. Phosphor aging leads to decreased brightness and elevated threshold voltage.

ZnS-based phosphors in CRTs and FEDs degrade by surface excitation, coulombic damage, build-up of electric charge, and thermal quenching. Electron-stimulated reactions of the surface are directly correlated to loss of brightness. The electrons dissociate impurities in the environment, the reactive oxygen species then attack the surface and form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide with traces of carbon, and nonradiative zinc oxide and zinc sulfate on the surface; the reactive hydrogen removes sulfur from the surface as hydrogen sulfide, forming nonradiative layer of metallic zinc. Sulfur can be also removed as sulfur oxides.

Materials

Phosphors are usually made from a suitable host material, to which an activator is added. The best known type is a copper-activated zinc sulfide and the silver-activated zinc sulfide (zinc sulfide silver).

The host materials are typically oxides, nitrides and oxynitrides, sulfides, selenides, halides or silicates of zinc, cadmium, manganese, aluminium, silicon, or various rare earth metals. The activators prolong the emission time (afterglow). In turn, other materials (such as nickel) can be used to quench the afterglow and shorten the decay part of the phosphor emission characteristics.

Many phosphor powders are produced in low-temperature processes, such as sol-gel and usually require post-annealing at temperatures of ~1000 C, which is undesirable for many applications. However, proper optimization of the growth process allows to avoid the annealing.

Phosphors used for fluorescent lamps require a multi-step production process, with details that vary depending on the particular phosphor. Bulk material must be milled to obtain a desired particle size range, since large particles produce a poor quality lamp coating and small particles produce less light and degrade more quickly. During the firing of the phosphor, process conditions must be controlled to prevent oxidation of the phosphor actuators or contamination from the process vessels. After milling the phosphor may be washed to remove minor excess of activator elements. Volatile elements must not be allowed to escape during processing. Lamp manufacturers have changed composition of phosphors to eliminate some toxic elements, such as beryllium, cadmium, or thallium, formerly used.

The commonly quoted parameters for phosphors are the wavelength of emission maximum (in nanometers, or alternatively color temperature in kelvins for white blends), the peak width (in nanometers at 50% of intensity), and decay time (in seconds).

Applications

Lighting

Phosphor layers provide most of the light produced by fluorescent lamps, and are also used to improve the balance of light produced by metal halide lamps. Various neon signs use phosphor layers to produce different colors of light. Electroluminescent displays found, for example, in aircraft instrument panels, use a phosphor layer to produce glare-free illumination or as numeric and graphic display devices.

Phosphor thermometry

Main article: Phosphor thermometry

Phosphor thermometry is a temperature measurement approach that utilizes the temperature dependence of certain phosphors for this purpose. For this, a phosphor coating is applied to a surface of interest and, usually, the decay time is the emission parameter that indicates temperature. Because the illumination and detection optics can be situated remotely, the method may be used for moving surfaces such as high speed motor surfaces. Also, phosphor may be applied to the end of an optical fiber as an optical analog of a thermocouple.

While the previously mentioned method is focusing on the temperature detection, the inclusion of phosphorescent materials into a ceramic component, for example a Thermal barrier coating, can yield a micro probe to detect the aging mechanisms or changes to other physical parameters that affect the local atomic surroundings of the optical active ion.. The latter proved the viability of detecting hot corrosion processes in Yttria-stabilized zirconia.

Glow-in-the-dark toys

Calcium sulfide with strontium sulfide with bismuth as activator, (Ca,Sr)S:Bi, yields blue light with glow times up to 12 hours, red and orange are modifications of the zinc sulfide formula. Red color can be obtained from strontium sulfide.

Zinc sulfide with about 5 ppm of a copper activator is the most common phosphor for the glow-in-the-dark toys and items. It is also called GS phosphor.

Mix of zinc sulfide and cadmium sulfide emit color depending on their ratio; increasing of the CdS content shifts the output color towards longer wavelengths; its persistence ranges between 110 hours.

Strontium aluminate activated by europium, SrAl2O4:Eu(II):Dy(III), is a newer material with higher brightness and significantly longer glow persistence; it produces green and aqua hues, where green gives the highest brightness and aqua the longest glow time. SrAl2O4:Eu:Dy is about 10 times brighter, 10 times longer glowing, and 10 times more expensive than ZnS:Cu. The excitation wavelengths for strontium aluminate range from 200 to 450 nm. The wavelength for its green formulation is 520 nm, its blue-green version emits at 505 nm, and the blue one emits at 490 nm. Colors with longer wavelengths can be obtained from the strontium aluminate as well, though for the price of some loss of brightness.

In these applications, the phosphor is directly added to the plastic from which the toys are molded, or mixed with a binder for use as paints.

ZnS:Cu phosphor is used in glow-in-the-dark cosmetic creams frequently used for Halloween make-ups. Generally, the persistence of the phosphor increases as the wavelength increases. See also lightstick for chemiluminescence-based glowing items.

Radioactive light sources

Mixtures of zinc sulfide with radioactive materials, where the phosphor was excited by the alpha- and beta-decaying isotopes, were used to create radioluminescence in paint on dials of watches and instruments (radium dials). The formula used on watch dials between 1913 and 1950 was a mix of radium-228 and radium-226 with a scintillator made of zinc sulfide and silver (ZnS:Ag). However, zinc sulfide undergoes degradation of its crystal lattice structure, leading to gradual loss of brightness significantly faster than the depletion of radium.

The ZnS:Ag phosphor yields greenish glow. It is not suitable to be used in layers thicker than 25 mg/cm, as the self-absorption of the light then becomes a problem. ZnS:Ag coated spinthariscope screens were used by Ernest Rutherford in his experiments discovering atomic nucleus.

Copper-activated zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu) is the most common phosphor used. It yields blue-green light.

Copper and magnesium activated zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu,Mg) yields yellow-orange light.

Trasers are light producing devices composed of a sealed borosilicate glass tube with inner coat of a phosphor, filled with tritium. Betalights use tritium as energy source as well.

Electroluminescence

Main article: Electroluminescence

Electroluminescence can be exploited in light sources. Such sources typically emit from a large area, which makes them suitable for backlights of eg. LCD displays. The excitation of the phosphor is usually achieved by application of high-intensity electric field, usually with suitable frequency. Current electroluminescent light sources tend to degrade with use, resulting in their relatively short operation lifetimes.

ZnS:Cu was the first formulation successfully displaying electroluminescence, tested at 1936 by Georges Destriau in Madame Marie Curie laboratories in Paris.

Indium tin oxide (ITO, also known under trade name IndiGlo) composite is used in some Timex watches, though as the electrode material, not as a phosphor itself. "Lighttape" is another trade name of an electroluminescent material, used in electroluminescent light strips.

White LEDs

White light-emitting diodes are usually blue InGaN LEDs with a coating of a suitable material. Cerium(III)-doped YAG (YAG:Ce3+, or Y3Al5O12:Ce3+) is often used; it absorbs the light from the blue LED and emits in a broad range from greenish to reddish, with most of output in yellow. The pale yellow emission of the Ce3+:YAG can be tuned by substituting the cerium with other rare earth elements such as terbium and gadolinium and can even be further adjusted by substituting some or all of the aluminium in the YAG with gallium. However, this process is not one of phosphorescence. The yellow light is produced by a process known as scintillation, the complete absence of an afterglow being one of the characteristics of the process.

Some rare-earth doped Sialons are photoluminescent and can serve as phosphors. Europium(II)-doped -SiAlON absorbs in ultraviolet and visible light spectrum and emits intense broadband visible emission. Its luminance and color does not change significantly with temperature, due to the temperature-stable crystal structure. It has a great potential as a green down-conversion phosphor for white LEDs; a yellow variant also exists. For white LEDs, a blue LED is used with a yellow phosphor, or with a green and yellow SiAlON phosphor and a red CaAlSiN3-based (CASN) phosphor.

White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a mixture of high efficiency europium based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu,Al). This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work.

Cathode ray tubes

Spectra of constituent blue, green and red phosphors in a common cathode ray tube.

Cathode ray tubes produce signal-generated light patterns in a (typically) round or rectangular format. Bulky CRTs were used in the black-and-white household television ("TV") sets that became popular in the 1950s, as well as first-generation, tube-based color TVs, and most earlier computer monitors. CRTs have also been widely used in scientific and engineering instrumentation, such as oscilloscopes, usually with a single phosphor color, typically green.

White (in black-and-white): The mix of zinc cadmium sulfide and zinc sulfide silver, the ZnS:Ag+(Zn,Cd)S:Ag is the white P4 phosphor used in black and white television CRTs.

Red: Yttrium oxide-sulfide activated with europium is used as the red phosphor in color CRTs. The development of color TVs took a long time due to the long search for a red phosphor. The first red emitting rare earth phosphor, YVO4,Eu3, was introduced by Levine and Palilla as a primary color in television in 1964. In single crystal form, it was used as an excellent polarizer and laser material.

Yellow: When mixed with cadmium sulfide, the resulting zinc cadmium sulfide (Zn,Cd)S:Ag, provides strong yellow light.

Green: Combination of zinc sulfide with copper, the P31 phosphor or ZnS:Cu, provides green light peaking at 531 nm, with long glow.

Blue: Combination of zinc sulfide with few ppm of silver, the ZnS:Ag, when excited by electrons, provides strong blue glow with maximum at 450 nm, with short afterglow with 200 nanosecond duration. It is known as the P22B phosphor. This material, zinc sulfide silver, is still one of the most efficient phosphors in cathode ray tubes. It is used as a blue phosphor in color CRTs.

The phosphors are usually poor electrical conductors. This may lead to deposition of residual charge on the screen, effectively decreasing the energy of the impacting electrons due to electrostatic repulsion (an effect known as "sticking"). To eliminate this, a thin layer of aluminium is deposited over the phosphors and connected to the conductive layer inside the tube. This layer also reflects the phosphor light to the desired direction, and protects the phosphor from ion bombardment resulting from an imperfect vacuum.

Standard phosphor types

Standard phosphor types

Phosphor

Composition

Color

Wavelength

Peak width

Persistence

Usage

Notes

P1, GJ

Zn2SiO4:Mn (Willemite)

Green

528 nm

40 nm

1-100ms

CRT, Lamp

Oscilloscopes

P4

ZnS:Ag+(Zn,Cd)S:Ag

White

-

-

Short

CRT

Black and white TV CRTs and display tubes.

P4 (Cd-free)

ZnS:Ag+ZnS:Cu+Y2O2S:Eu

White

-

-

Short

CRT

Black and white TV CRTs and display tubes, Cd free.

P4, GE

ZnO:Zn

Green

505 nm

-

1-10s

VFD

VFDs

P7

?

Yellow

-

-

Long

CRT

Radar PPI

P10

KCl

Absorbs green

-

-

Long

Dark-trace CRTs

Radar screens

P11, BE

ZnS:Ag,Cl or ZnS:Zn

Blue

460 nm

-

0.01-1 ms

CRT, VFD

Display tubes and VFDs

P19, LF

(KF,MgF2):Mn

Orange-Yellow

590 nm

-

Long

CRT

Radar screens

P20, KA

(Zn,Cd)S:Ag or (Zn,Cd)S:Cu

Yellow-green

-

-

1-100 ms

CRT

Display tubes

P22R

Y2O2S:Eu+Fe2O3

Red

-

-

Short

CRT

Red phosphor for TV screens

P22G

ZnS:Cu,Al

Green

-

-

Short

CRT

Green phosphor for TV screens

P22B

ZnS:Ag+Co-on-Al2O3

Blue

-

-

Short

CRT

Blue phosphor for TV screens

P26, LC

(KF,MgF2):Mn

Orange

595 nm

-

Long

CRT

Radar screens

P28, KE

(Zn,Cd)S:Cu,Cl

Yellow

-

-

-

CRT

Display tubes

P31, GH

ZnS:Cu or ZnS:Cu,Ag

Yellowish-green

-

-

0.01-1 ms

CRT

Oscilloscopes

P33, LD

MgF2:Mn

Orange

590 nm

-

> 1sec

CRT

Radar screens

P38, LK

(Zn,Mg)F2:Mn

Orange-Yellow

590 nm

-

Long

CRT

Radar screens

P39, GR

Zn2SiO4:Mn,As

Green

525 nm

-

-

CRT

Display tubes

P40, GA

ZnS:Ag+(Zn,Cd)S:Cu

White

-

-

-

CRT

Display tubes

P43, GY

Gd2O2S:Tb

Yellow-green

545 nm

-

-

CRT

Display tubes

P45, WB

Y2O2S:Tb

White

545 nm

-

Short

CRT

Viewfinders

P46, KG

Y3Al5O12:Ce

Green

530 nm

-

-

CRT

Beam-index tube

P47, BH

Y2SiO5:Ce

Blue

400 nm

-

-

CRT

Beam-index tube

P53, KJ

Y3Al5O12:Tb

Yellow-green

544 nm

-

Short

CRT

Projection tubes

P55, BM

ZnS:Ag,Al

Blue

450 nm

-

Short

CRT

Projection tubes

?

ZnS:Ag

Blue

450 nm

-

-

CRT

-

?

ZnS:Cu,Al or ZnS:Cu,Au,Al

Green

530 nm

-

-

CRT

-

?

(Zn,Cd)S:Cu,Cl+(Zn,Cd)S:Ag,Cl

White

-

-

-

CRT

-

?

Y2SiO5:Tb

Green

545 nm

-

-

CRT

Projection tubes

?

Y2OS:Tb

Green

545 nm

-

-

CRT

Display tubes

?

Y3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce

Green

520 nm

-

Short

CRT

Beam-index tube

?

Y3(Al,Ga)5O12:Tb

Yellow-green

544 nm

-

Short

CRT

Projection tubes

?

InBO3:Tb

Yellow-green

550 nm

-

-

CRT

-

?

InBO3:Eu

Yellow

588 nm

-

-

CRT

-

?

InBO3:Tb+InBO3:Eu

amber

-

-

-

CRT

Computer displays

?

InBO3:Tb+InBO3:Eu+ZnS:Ag

White

-

-

-

CRT

-

?

(Ba,Eu)Mg2Al16O27

Blue

-

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

(Ce,Tb)MgAl11O19

Green

546 nm

9 nm

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

BAM

BaMgAl10O17:Eu,Mn

Blue

450 nm

-

-

Lamp, displays

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

BaMg2Al16O27:Eu(II)

Blue

450 nm

52 nm

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

BAM

BaMgAl10O17:Eu,Mn

Blue-Green

456 nm,514 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

BaMg2Al16O27:Eu(II),Mn(II)

Blue-Green

456 nm, 514 nm

50 nm 50%

-

Lamp

?

Ce0.67Tb0.33MgAl11O19:Ce,Tb

Green

543 nm

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

Zn2SiO4:Mn,Sb2O3

Green

528 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

CaSiO3:Pb,Mn

Orange-Pink

615 nm

83 nm

-

Lamp

?

CaWO4 (Scheelite)

Blue

417 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

CaWO4:Pb

Blue

433 nm/466 nm

111 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth

?

MgWO4

Blue pale

473 nm

118 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth, deluxe blend component

?

(Sr,Eu,Ba,Ca)5(PO4)3Cl

Blue

-

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

Sr5Cl(PO4)3:Eu(II)

Blue

447 nm

32 nm

-

Lamp

-

?

(Ca,Sr,Ba)3(PO4)2Cl2:Eu

Blue

452 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

(Sr,Ca,Ba)10(PO4)6Cl2:Eu

Blue

453 nm

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

Sr2P2O7:Sn(II)

Blue

460 nm

98 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth, deluxe blend component

?

Sr6P5BO20:Eu

Blue-Green

480 nm

82 nm

-

Lamp

-

?

Ca5F(PO4)3:Sb

Blue

482 nm

117 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth

?

(Ba,Ti)2P2O7:Ti

Blue-Green

494 nm

143 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth, deluxe blend component

?

3Sr3(PO4)2.SrF2:Sb,Mn

Blue

502 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

Sr5F(PO4)3:Sb,Mn

Blue-Green

509 nm

127 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth

?

Sr5F(PO4)3:Sb,Mn

Blue-Green

509 nm

127 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth

?

LaPO4:Ce,Tb

Green

544 nm

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

(La,Ce,Tb)PO4

Green

-

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

(La,Ce,Tb)PO4:Ce,Tb

Green

546 nm

6 nm

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2:Ce,Mn

Yellow

568 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

(Ca,Zn,Mg)3(PO4)2:Sn

Orange-Pink

610 nm

146 nm

-

Lamp

Wide bandwidth, blend component

?

(Zn,Sr)3(PO4)2:Mn

Orange-Red

625 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

(Sr,Mg)3(PO4)2:Sn

Orange-Pinkish White

626 nm

120 nm

-

Fluorescent Lamps

Wide bandwidth, deluxe blend component

?

(Sr,Mg)3(PO4)2:Sn(II)

Orange-Red

630 nm

-

-

Fluorescent Lamps

-

?

Ca5F(PO4)3:Sb,Mn

3800K

-

-

-

Fluorescent Lamps

Lite-white blend

?

Ca5(F,Cl)(PO4)3:Sb,Mn

White-Cold/Warm

-

-

-

Fluorescent Lamps

2600K to 9900K, for very high output lamps

?

(Y,Eu)2O3

Red

-

-

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

Y2O3:Eu(III)

Red

611 nm

4 nm

-

Lamp

Trichromatic fluorescent lamps

?

Mg4(F)GeO6:Mn

Red

658 nm

17 nm

-

High Pressure Mercury Lamps

?

Mg4(F)(Ge,Sn)O6:Mn

Red

658 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

Y(P,V)O4:Eu

Orange-Red

619 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

YVO4:Eu

Orange-Red

619 nm

-

-

High Pressure Mercury and Metal Halide Lamps

-

?

Y2O2S:Eu

Red

626 nm

-

-

Lamp

-

?

3.5 MgO . 0.5 MgF2 . GeO2 :Mn

Red

655 nm

-

-

Lamp

3.5 MgO . 0.5 MgF2 . GeO2 :Mn

?

Mg5As2O11:Mn

Red

660 nm

-

-

High Pressure Mercury Lamps, 1960s

-

?

SrAl2O7:Pb

Ultraviolet

313 nm

-

-

Special Fluorescent Lamps for Medical use

Ultraviolet

CAM

LaMgAl11O19:Ce

Ultraviolet

340 nm

52 nm

-

Black-light Fluorescent Lamps

Ultraviolet

LAP

LaPO4:Ce

Ultraviolet

320 nm

38 nm

-

Medical and scientific U.V. Lamps

Ultraviolet

SAC

SrAl12O19:Ce

Ultraviolet

295 nm

34 nm

-

Lamp

Ultraviolet

BSP

BaSi2O5:Pb

Ultraviolet

350 nm

40 nm

-

Lamp

Ultraviolet

?

SrFB2O3:Eu(II)

Ultraviolet

366 nm

-

-

Lamp

Ultraviolet

SBE

SrB4O7:Eu

Ultraviolet

368 nm

15 nm

-

Lamp

Ultraviolet

SMS

Sr2MgSi2O7:Pb

Ultraviolet

365 nm

68 nm

-

Lamp

Ultraviolet

?

MgGa2O4:Mn(II)

Blue-Green

-

-

-

Lamp

Black light displays

Various

Some other phosphors commercially available, for use as X-ray screens, neutron detectors, alpha-particle scintillators, etc, are:

Gd2O2S:Tb (P43), green (peak at 545 nm), 1.5 ms decay to 10%, low afterglow, high X-ray absorption, for X-ray, neutrons and gamma

Gd2O2S:Eu, red (627 nm), 850 s decay, afterglow, high X-ray absorption, for X-ray, neutrons and gamma

Gd2O2S:Pr, green (513 nm), 7 s decay, no afterglow, high X-ray absorption, for X-ray, neutrons and gamma

Gd2O2S:Pr,Ce,F, green (513 nm), 4 s decay, no afterglow, high X-ray absorption, for X-ray, neutrons and gamma

Y2O2S:Tb (P45), white (545 nm), 1.5 ms decay, low afterglow, for low-energy X-ray

Y2O2S:Eu (P22R), red (627 nm), 850 s decay, afterglow, for low-energy X-ray

Y2O2S:Pr, white (513 nm), 7 s decay, no afterglow, for low-energy X-ray

Zn(0.5)Cd(0.4)S:Ag (HS), green (560 nm), 80 s decay, afterglow, efficient but low-res X-ray

Zn(0.4)Cd(0.6)S:Ag (HSr), red (630 nm), 80 s decay, afterglow, efficient but low-res X-ray

CdWO4, blue (475 nm), 28 s decay, no afterglow, intensifying phosphor for X-ray and gamma

CaWO4, blue (410 nm), 20 s decay, no afterglow, intensifying phosphor for X-ray

MgWO4, white (500 nm), 80 s decay, no afterglow, intensifying phosphor

Y2SiO5:Ce (P47), blue (400 nm), 120 ns decay, no afterglow, for electrons, suitable for photomultipliers

YAlO3:Ce (YAP), blue (370 nm), 25 ns decay, no afterglow, for electrons, suitable for photomultipliers

Y3Al5O12:Ce (YAG), green (550 nm), 70 ns decay, no afterglow, for electrons, suitable for photomultipliers

Y3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce (YGG), green (530 nm), 250 ns decay, low afterglow, for electrons, suitable for photomultipliers

CdS:In, green (525 nm), <1 ns decay, no afterglow, ultrafast, for electrons

ZnO:Ga, blue (390 nm), <5 ns decay, no afterglow, ultrafast, for electrons

ZnO:Zn (P15), blue (495 nm), 8 s decay, no afterglow, for low-energy electrons

(Zn,Cd)S:Cu,Al (P22G), green (565 nm), 35 s decay, low afterglow, for electrons

ZnS:Cu,Al,Au (P22G), green (540 nm), 35 s decay, low afterglow, for electrons

ZnCdS:Ag,Cu (P20), green (530 nm), 80 s decay, low afterglow, for electrons

ZnS:Ag (P11), blue (455 nm), 80 s decay, low afterglow, for alpha particles and electrons

anthracene, blue (447 nm), 32 ns decay, no afterglow, for alpha particles and electrons

plastic (EJ-212), blue (400 nm), 2.4 ns decay, no afterglow, for alpha particles and electrons

Zn2SiO4:Mn (P1), green (530 nm), 11 ms decay, low afterglow, for electrons

ZnS:Cu (GS), green (520 nm), decay in minutes, long afterglow, for X-rays

NaI:Tl, for X-ray, alpha, and electrons

CsI:Tl, green (545 nm), 5 s decay, afterglow, for X-ray, alpha, and electrons

6LiF/ZnS:Ag (ND), blue (455 nm), 80 s decay, for thermal neutrons

6LiF/ZnS:Cu,Al,Au (NDg), green (565 nm), 35 s decay, for neutrons

See also

photoluminescence

cathodoluminescence

laser

References

^ Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking History of Phosphorus. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0330390058. 

^ Bizarri, G (2005). "On phosphor degradation mechanism: thermal treatment effects". Journal of Luminescence 113: 199. doi:10.1016/j.jlumin.2004.09.119. 

^ Lakshmanan, p.171

^ Tanno, Hiroaki (2009). "Lifetime Improvement of BaMgAl10O17:Eu2+Phosphor by Hydrogen Plasma Treatment". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 48: 092303. doi:10.1143/JJAP.48.092303. 

^ Ntwaeaborwa, O. M. (2004). "Degradation of Y2O3:Eu phosphor powders". Physica status solidi (c) 1: 2366. doi:10.1002/pssc.200404813. 

^ Wang, Ching-Wu (1997). "Deep Traps and Mechanism of Brightness Degradation in Mn-doped ZnS Thin-Film Electroluminescent Devices Grown by Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 36: 2728. doi:10.1143/JJAP.36.2728. 

^ Lakshmanan, pp. 51, 76

^ Xie, Rong-Jun (2007). "Silicon-based oxynitride and nitride phosphors for white LEDs review" (free pdf). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 8: 588. doi:10.1016/j.stam.2007.08.005. http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1468-6996/8/7-8/A08/STAM_8_7-8_A08.pdf. 

^ Li, Hui-Li (2007). "Fine yellow -SiAlON:Eu phosphors for white LEDs prepared by the gas-reductionitridation method" (free pdf). Sci. Techno. Adv. Mater. 8: 601. doi:10.1016/j.stam.2007.09.003. http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1468-6996/8/7-8/A09/STAM_8_7-8_A09.pdf. 

^ Raymond Kane, Heinz Sell Revolution in lamps: a chronicle of 50 years of progress (2nd ed.), The Fairmont Press, Inc. 2001 ISBN 0881733784 . Chapter 5 extensively discusses history, application and manufacturing of phosphors for lamps.

^ K-L. Choy, A. L. Heyes and J. Feist (1998) "Thermal barrier coating with thermoluminescent indicator material embedded therein" U.S. Patent 6,974,641

^ A. M. Srivastava, A. A. Setlur, H. A. Comanzo, J. W. Devitt, J. A. Ruud and L. N. Brewer (2001) "Apparatus for determining past-service conditions and remaining life of thermal barrier coatings and components having such coatings" U.S. Patent 6,730,918B2

^ J. P. Feist and A. L. Heyes (2003) "Coatings and an optical method for detecting corrosion process in coatings" GB. Patent 0318929.7

^ Youn-Gon Park et al.. "Luminescence and temperature dependency of -SiAlON phosphor". Samsung Electro Mechanics Co. http://www.science24.com/paper/15977. 

^ Hideyoshi Kume, Nikkei Electronics (Sept 15, 2009). "Sharp to Employ White LED Using Sialon". http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20090915/175305/. 

^ Hirosaki Naoto et al. (2005). "New sialon phosphors and white LEDs". Oyo Butsuri 74 (11): 1449. http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200602/000020060205A1031052.php. 

^ Levine, Albert K. (1964). "A new, highly efficient red-emitting cathodoluminescent phosphor (YVO4:Eu) for color television". Applied Physics Letters 5: 118. doi:10.1063/1.1723611. 

^ Fields, R. A. (1987). "Highly efficient Nd:YVO4 diode-laser end-pumped laser". Applied Physics Letters 51: 1885. doi:10.1063/1.98500. 

^ Shigeo Shionoya (1999). "VI: Phosphors for cathode ray tubes". Phosphor handbook. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. ISBN 0849375606. http://books.google.com/books?id=lWlcJEDukRIC&pg=PA469. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "Osram Sylvania fluorescent lamps". http://www.sylvania.com/BusinessProducts/MaterialsandComponents/LightingComponents/Phosphor/FluorescentLamps/. Retrieved 2009-06-06. 

Arunachalam Lakshmanan (2008). Luminescence and Display Phosphors: Phenomena and Applications. Nova Publishers. ISBN 1604560185. http://books.google.com/books?id=lKCWAaCiaZgC&pg=PA171. 

External links

Look up phosphor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

a history of electroluminescent displays.

Fluorescence, Phosphorescence

CRT Phosphor Characteristics (P numbers)

Composition of CRT phosphors

Safe Phosphors

Silicon-based oxynitride and nitride phosphors for white LEDs review

& - RCA Manual, Fluorescent screens (P1 to P24)

Categories: Luminescence | Lighting | Display technology | Optical materials | Phosphors and scintillators